THE  UNIVERSITY 


OF  ILLINOIS 


library 


>  f 

* 

* 


V\ 


The  D.  Van  No^trand  Company 

intend  this  book  to  be  sold  to  the  Public 
at  the  advertised  price,  and  supply  it  to 
the  Trade  on  terms  which  will  not  allow 
of  reduction. 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND 

CHASSIS 

A  TEXT-BOOK  DEALING  WITH  THE 
COMPLETE  CAR,  FOR  THE  USE  OF 
OWNERS,  STUDENTS,  AND  OTHERS 


BY 

H.  J.  BUTLER 

technical  editor  of  “the  automobile  and  carriage  builders’  journal 

HONOURS  SILVER  MEDALLIST  AND  1ST  PRIZEMAN  CITY 
AND  GUILDS  OF  LONDON  INSTITUTE 


FOREWORD 

BY  THE 

Rt.  Hon.  THE  LORD  MONTAGU  OF  BEAULIEU 

EDITOR  OF  “THE  CAR  ILLUSTRATED” 


NEW  YORK 

D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY 

23  MURRAY  AND  27  WARREN  STREETS 


1912 


3^-/3  XJO 


FOREWORD 


BY  THE 

Et.  Hon.  THE  LOED  MONTAGU  OF  BEAULIEU, 

EDITOR  OF  “  THE  CAR  ILLUSTRATED.” 

Mr.  H.  J.  Butler  has  in  the  following  pages  stated  so  much  that 
is  interesting,  both  to  the  motorist,  the  carriage  builder,  and  the 
manufacturers  of  the  chassis  of  the  automobile,  that  any  praise  or 
criticism  in  detail  is  unnecessary.  The  author  is  a  thorough  master 
of  his  subject,  and  has  had  many  years  of  training  in  the  matters 
with  which  he  deals. 

There  was  a  time  when  the  buyer  of  a  motor  car  was  interested 
chiefly  in  the  machinery,  and  was  wont  to  talk  learnedly,  or  the 
reverse,  about  the  details  of  the  engine  and  gear,  which  in  those 
days  were  all-important,  for  they  were  by  no  means  reliable.  But 
the  more  reliable  the  motor  car  engine  became,  the  less  considera¬ 
tion  had  to  be  given  by  the  would-be  purchaser  to  this  part  of  the 
subject.  Speaking  generally  in  this  year  1912,  n  ost  of  the  leading 
British  and  Foreign  makers  construct  cars  of  proved  reliability,  and 
a  mechanical  breakdown  on  the  road  in  the  case  of  a  first-class 
private  car  has  become  quite  rare. 

Thus  it  follows  that  the  carriage  builder  has  come  to  his  own 
once  more,  and  it  is  natural  that  the  would-be  purchaser,  male  or 
female — and  the  ladies  are,  by  the  by,  the  more  critical — should  be 
devoting  a  great  deal  more  attention  than  formerly  to  the  design  of 
the  body  work,  the  comfort  of  the  interior,  and  to  the  fittings  and 
the  coach-work  generally.  The  horse-carriage  builders  who  some 
twelve  years  ago  thought  themselves  about  to  be  ruined  when  the 
motor  car  was  first  introduced,  and  when  the  use  of  the  horse 
carriage  began  therefore  to  decline,  have  found  an  unexpectedly 
large  and  growing  market  in  which,  although  there  is  much  competi¬ 
tion,  there  is  plenty  of  work  for  all,  and  likely  to  be  even  more  in 
the  near  future. 


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VI 


FOREWORD 


It  is  curious  that  the  money  which  the  buyer  will  spend  on  a 
good  body  for  a  motor-car  is  now  quite  as  much,  if  not  moie,  than 
that  which  used  to  be  spent  on  a  similar  body  for  a  horse-drawn 
carriage  in  the  past.  To-day  also,  as  formerly,  one  can  state  without 
contradiction  that  the  carriage  work  of  British  manufacturers  is 

still  superior  to  that  made  anywhere  else. 

There  is  no  point  about  motor  body  and  chassis  that  Mr.  Butler 
has  neglected,  and  it  is  with  real  pleasure  that  I  commend  this  book 
to  brother  and  sister  motorists,  to  the  students  and  workmen  of  his 
own  trade,  and  to  the  public  generally.  There  are  certain  points  in 
which  the  author’s  common  sense,  and  his  knowledge  of  the  latest 
developments,  are  particularly  shown  ;  such  as  the  fact  that  m  none 
of  his  illustrations  are  the  side  doors  drawn  as  being  hung  m  any 
but  the  right  way,  that  is  hinged  from  the  front,  instead  of  fiom 
the  back,  following  railway  practice,  so  that  if  the  car  happened  to 
go  on  with  the  door  open  the  tendency  of  forward  motion  will  help 
to  close  the  door.  He  also  realises  the  necessity  for  protection  from 
the  elements,  and  he  devotes  special  attention  to  screens  and  hoods. 
He  also  puts  in  a  plea  for  the  proper  treatment  of  the  body  with 
good  paint,  and  emphasises  that  plenty  of  time  ought  to  be  allowed 
for  the  outside  and  final  coat  of  varnish  to  dry,  a  period  which  is 
generally  cut  too  short,  owing  to  the  anxiety  of  the  owner  to  have 
his  motor-car  for  use  on  the  road  as  soon  as  possible. 

As  Mr.  Butler  is  the  technical  editor  of  The  Automobile  and 
Carriage  Builders'  Journal,  there  is  no  wonder  that  he  speaks  with 
authority  to  the  chassis  builder  and  body  builder,  and  puts  forward 
in  their  right  proportions  the  claims  due  to  each  in  the  production 
of  the  perfect  motor-car. 

The  chapters  on  the  petrol  engine  and  the  machinery  of  the 
chassis  itself  are  well  worthy  of  attention,  and  the  notes  on  the 
preservation  of  a  car  should  be  read  by  every  motor  owner  and 
motor  man,  whether  amateur  or  professional,  who  desires  to 
maintain  a  car  in  good  order. 

Mr.  Butler  deserves  a  great  success  with  his  book,  and  I  hope 
that  he  will  achieve  it. 


“The  Car”  Office, 

168,  Piccadilly, 


PREFACE 


So  far  the  many  books  dealing  with  the  subject  of  motor  cars, 
which  have  been  published,  have  dealt  almost  exclusively  with 
the  engineer’s  portion  of  it,  that  is,  the  chassis,  giving  but  slight 
heed  to  the  bodywork.  This  book  is  intended  as  an  introduction 
to  the  study  of  the  complete  car,  and  as  much  importance  is 
attached  to  the  art  of  the  carriage  builder  as  to  that  of  the  motor 
manufacturer.  Now  that  the  design  of  the  mechanism  is  confined 
largely  to  the  improvement  of  small  details,  more  notice  has 
naturally  been  directed  to  the  body,  and  the  author  feels  that 
an  opportune  moment  has  arrived  for  placing  at  the  disposal  of 
those  interested  more  information  regarding  this  part  of  the  car. 
By  so  doing  it  is  hoped  that  the  motorist  will  be  in  a  better 
position  to  choose  the  body  best  suited  to  his  needs,  while  the 
student  is  provided  with  a  text-book,  part  of  which  comprises 
subject-matter  which  has  hitherto  been  unavailable. 

The  treatment  of  the  various  chapters  has  been  carried  out 
as  broadly  as  possible,  but  here  and  there  interesting  deviations 
from  standard  practice  have  been  described.  The  various  styles 
of  bodies  are  dealt  with  fully  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
user,  constructor,  and  draughtsman.  The  painting  and  upholstery, 
as  well  as  the  more  important  accessories,  receive  their  share 
of  attention. 

Regarding  the  chassis,  the  path  of  the  fuel  from  the  tank 
to  the  silencer  is  followed,  the  various  parts  and  working 
principles  being  treated  in  their  natural  order ;  but  separate 
chapters  are  devoted  to  ignition,  the  cooling  of  the  cylinders, 


and  lubrication.  In  dealing  with  ignition,  the  object  in  view 
has  been  to  lead  up  to  the  subject  of  the  high  tension  magneto 
system  rather  than  to  consider  it  exclusively.  The  chapter  on 
wheels  includes  the  survey  of  both  wood  and  metal  types  as 
well  as  modern  detachable  devices,  while  the  matter  of  tyres  is 
gone  into  fully,  since  it  is  so  closely  bound  up  with  the  financial 
side  of  motoring,  a  point  of  view  enlarged  upon  in  the  last  two 
chapters,  which  deal  with  the  cost  of  running  both  pleasure  and 

commercial  cars. 

Acknowledgment  is  due  to  those  British  and  American  firms 
who  have  supplied  particulars  of  their  cars,  and  to  those  makers 
of  components  and  accessories  for  information  regarding  their 
specialities.  The  author  expresses  his  indebtedness  to  those 
carriage  builders  who  supplied  material  from  which  the  tables  in 
Chapter  X.  have  been  compiled,  and  for  the  knowledge  gained  by 
the  perusal  of  the  motor  press  generally  since  the  inception  of 
automobilism. 

H.  J.  BUTLER. 

Bush  Hill  Park, 

Enfield. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I  * 

THE  VARIETIES  OF  MOTOR  BODIES  DEFINED 

Varieties  of  turnunder  ........ 

Two-seated  ears  or  single  phaetons  ...... 

Three-seated  cars  ......... 

Tonneau  phaetons . 

Side-entrance  phaetons . 

Protected  phaetons . 

Single  broughams . 

Double  broughams . 

Single  landaulettes . 

Double  landaulettes  ......... 

Limousine  landaulettes . 

Landaus  . 

Cabriolets  or  landaulette  phaetons . 

Limousines . 

Single  enclosed  cars . 

Double  enclosed  cars . 

Wagonettes . 

Omnibuses . 

Dog-cart  phaetons . 


PAGE 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 
4 
4 
4 

4 

5 
5 

5 

6 
6 
6 
7 
7 
7 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  DIMENSIONS  OF  THE  BODY 


Head  room . 8 

Leg  room  . . 8 

Knee  room . 9 

Seat  room . 9 

Gangways  and  doorways . 9 

The  influence  of  chassis  sizes . 10 

Allowances  for  the  framework . 11 


X 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  HI 

BODY  DESIGN  ( PHAETONS ) 

The  horizontal  lines  of  the  body  •  • 

The  vertical  lines  .... 

Moulding  display . 

Panel  and  window  areas . 

Turnunder  ..•••• 

Side  sweep . 

Round  corners  .  •  •  •  • 

Roof  sweep . 

Recessing . 

Various  points  in  the  design  of  leading  body  types  . 

Two-seated  cars  .  .  •  • 

Racing  types  of  two-seaters  ... 

The  commercial  traveller’s  two-seater 
Three -seated  cars  .  .  .  • 

Compactness  of  the  hind  seat  •  •  * 

Tonneau  phaetons  .  .  •  • 

Side -entrance  phaetons  . 

Flush-sided  phaetons  .  .  •  • 

Semi-flush-sided  phaetons  ... 
Straight-backed  phaetons  •  • 

Rotund  phaetons  .  •  •  •  • 

Victoria  phaetons  .  •  •  • 

Tulip  phaetons . 

Roi  des  Beiges  phaetons  •  •  . 

Protected  phaetons . 


PAGE 

12 

12 

13 

14 

15 

15 

16 
17 
17 
17 
17 
20 
20 
21 
22 
22 

23 

24 
26 
27 

27 

28 

29 

30 
30 


CHAPTER  IV 

BODY  DESIGN  ( LIMOUSINES ,  LANDAULETTES,  AND 

OTHER  TYPES) 

Single  broughams . 

Double  broughams . 

Single  landaulettes . 

Double  landaulettes . 

Limousine  landaulettes 
Landaus 

Cabriolets  ...•••• 

Limousines . 

Single  enclosed  cars . 

Double  enclosed  cars . 


32 

33 
33 
36 

38 

39 

40 
43 

46 

47 


CONTENTS 


XI 


Wagonettes,  shooting  brakes,  and  luggage  cars  . 

Lonsdale  wagonettes . 

Private  omnibuses . 


PAGE 

48 

50 

50 


Locker  space 


50 


CHAPTER  Y 

THE  GOACHB TJILDER  AND  THE  MOTORIST 

Who  shall  have  the  order  for  the  body  ? . 

The  claims  of  the  coachbuilder  ..♦•••• 

The  time  factor . 

The  blue  print  and  sketches  •  •••••• 

Visits  during  construction  ..•••••• 


52 

53 

54 
54 
54 


CHAPTER  YI 

MOTOR  BODY  DRAWING 

Instruments  ..•••••• 

Scale  drawing . 

Arrangement  of  elevations  and  plan  .... 
Drawing  a  flush-sided  phaeton  . 

Fixing  the  paper . 

Spacing  out . 

The  main  dimensions . 

Freehand  drawing 

Plotting  the  doorway  ..-•••• 

Designing  the  scuttle  dash  ...... 

Wings  and  steps 

The  half-back  view . 

Deciding  the  width  of  the  hind  seat  . 

The  full  plan . 

Setting  out  the  hind  corners . 

Enclosing  the  levers 

Finishing  off  the  elevations . 

The  half-front  view . 

Setting  out  the  cape  cart  hood . 


57 

61 

61 

62 

63 

63 

66 

67 

67 

68 
69 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 
76 
76 
76 


Xll 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  YII 

MOTOR  BODY  MAKING 

The  question  of  light  construction  .... 
Why  stout  timbers  are  required  .... 
Saving  weight  in  seat  construction  .... 
The  weight  factor  as  directly  influenced  by  the  chassis 

Pattern  making . 

Marking  out  the  stuff  ...•••• 
Wood- working  machinery  ..•••• 

Seasoning  pillars  and  rails . 

The  face  side  ...••••• 
Joints  ...•••••• 

Framing  up . 

Wood  panelling 

Framed  and  solid  sides  ...••• 

Coach  joinery . 

Door  hinges,  locks,  and  dovetails  .... 

Folding  head  ironwork . 

Panel  canvasing  and  blocking . 

Bent  timber  ....•••• 
Open  body  construction  ...••• 


CHAPTER  VIII 

MOUNTING 


Comfortable  driving  position 
Fitting  wings  and  long  side  steps 
Step  lockers 

The  coach  finisher,  fitter,  and  inspector  . 


CHAPTER  IX 

COMFORT  IN  THE  MOTOR  BODY 

The  function  of  the  upholstery . 

Cushions . 

Squabbing . 

Colour  and  quality  of  the  cloth . 

Leather . 

Floor  comfort . 


PAGE 

78 

79 

80 
80 
81 
81 
82 
82 
83 
83 

85 

86 
86 

87 

88 

89 

90 

91 
91 


93 

94 

95 
95 


96 

96 

97 
97 

97 

98 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Where  padding  is  restricted . 98 

The  use  of  coach  laces . 98 

Unsightly  glass  strings . 98 

The  importance  of  comfort  in  a  motor  car  .......  99 

Trimming  accessories . 99 

Cabinet  work . 190 

Conveniently  placed  handles  .  .  •  •  ♦  ■  *  •  •  •  100 

Pockets . 100 

Blinds . .  •  •  •  •  •  101 

Ventilation . 101 

Heating . 102 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  DECORATION  OF  THE  CAR 

Harmony  between  panels  and  trimming . 108 

Dark  colours  a  safe  plan  .  .  .  . . 108 

Some  actual  colour  schemes . 104 

Colour  schemes  used  by  Royalty  and  the  nobility . 106 

Striping . 108 

Caning  and  basketwork  ..........  108 

Bevelled  glass  ...•••»•••*  108 

Polished  and  varnished  woodwork . 108 

The  time  factor  in  painting . 109 

Metal  fittings  .  .  •  •  •  •  •  ♦  •  •  •  HO 

Heraldic  display . HO 


CHAPTER  XI 

PAINTING 

The  ideal  paintshop . .112 

Ready  prepared  paints . .  •  •  .112 

Dusting  the  body . H® 

The  first  priming  coat . .  •  .118 

The  next  priming  coats . H4 

Roof  covering . H4 

When  stopping-up  is  done . H4 

Filling-up  coats  ....♦•••••*•  H4 

Stopping-up  .  - . 11® 

The  staining  coat . H® 

Rubbing  down . H® 


XIV 


CONTENTS 


The  excellence  of  the  prepared  surface 
Preparation  for  the  colour  coat  . 
Ground  and  body  colour  coats 

Flatting . 

Varnishing  coats  .... 
Painting  the  chassis  .... 
Hard  stopper  plastering  and  its  dangers 
Finishing  in  the  varnished  wood 
The  time  occupied  .... 

A  quick  job  with  enamel  . 

Repainting  jobs . 

Removing  paint . 

Colour  nomenclature  .... 
Lining  tools . 


PAGE 

.  116 

.  116 
.  117 
.  117 
.  117 
.  117 
.  118 
.  118 
.  118 
.  120 
.  120 
.  121 
.  121 
.  121 


CHAPTER  XII 


STOVE  ENAMELLING  AND  FRENCH  POLISHING 

Stove  enamelling . 

Preparing  the  surface  ....... 

The  stove . 

The  coats  of  enamel . 

French  polishing  ....... 

The  filling-up . 

The  cotton  rubber . 


.  128 
.  123 
.  124 
.  124 

.  124 

.  124 
.  125 


CHAPTER  XIII 

WEATHER  PROTECTION 


Wind  screens . 

Their  attachment  to  the  dashboard 

Varieties  used 

The  function  of  a  screen  . 

Details  of  the  construction 
Wind  screen  joints  . 

Screens  for  the  hind  seat 
Cape  cart  hoods  .... 
Single  hoods  .... 
Double  extension  hoods  . 

The  fittings  .... 

The  covering  and  its  fixing 


.  126 
.  126 
.  127 
.  128 
.  128 
.  130 
.  131 
.  131 
.  131 
.  132 

.  133 
.  134 


CONTENTS 


xv 


PAGE 

Cape  cart  hoods — continued 

The  means  for  keeping  the  hood  open . 134 

“  One-man  ”  hoods . 135 

Divisible  hoods . 135 

Curtains . 136 

Wings . 136 

Flanges  and  side  guards . 137 

Mud  streams . 137 

Detachable  wings . 139 

Step-guards . 140 

Undershields . 140 

Bonnets . 140 

Chain  cases . 141 

Body  design  and  weather  protection . 141 

Clothing . 142 

CHAPTER  XIV 

INTERIOR  ILLUMINATION 

Roof  lamps . 144 

Wiring . 145 

Lighting  accumulators . 145 

EXTERIOR  ILLUMINATION 

Legal  requirements . 147 

Electric  lamps . 147 

Acetylene  lamps . 148 

Petroleum  lamps . 149 

CHAPTER  XV 

BODY  ACCESSORIES 

Tool  boxes . 152 

Luggage  grids . 154 

Driving  mirrors . 154 

Trunks . 154 

Communicators . 156 

Speaking  tubes . *  156 

Glass  flaps  .  ,  ,  157 


XVI 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTEE  XVI 

HOW  TO  CHOOSE  A  CHASSIS 

The  question  of  price . 

Personal  recommendation . 

Visiting  the  local  agent  .••••• 

The  body  space  .  .  .  •  • 

The  question  of  delivery . 

The  man  of  an  engineering  turn  of  mind  . 

The  car  with  a  reputation  . . 

Steam  and  electric  cars  ...... 

Spare  parts . 

Trial  runs . 

Second-hand  cars  . 


CHAPTEE  XVII 

THE  PETROL  ENGINE 


The  fuel . 

Pressure -fed  and  gravity  tanks  . 
Carburation  ...... 

The  float-feed  carburettor  .... 

Some  modern  types . 

The  engine . 

The  Otto  cycle . 

Valve  timing . 

Engine  arrangement . 

Valve  position . 

The  cylinder  casting . 

The  number  of  cylinders  and  order  of  firing 
Pistons  ...••♦• 

Water  jacketing . 

Crank  shaft  bearings  and  crank  cases 
Valve  mechanism  . 

The  cam  and  other  shafts  . 

Slide  and  piston  valves  . 

The  exhaust  pipe  and  silencer  . 

The  two-stroke  cycle . 

Horsepower . 


PAGE 

.  158 

.  158 
.  158 

.  159 

.  159 

.  159 

.  159 

.  159 

.  160 
.  160 
.  160 


.  168 
.  164 
.  166 
.  167 
.  168 
.  170 
.  172 
.  172 
.  173 

.  173 
.  174 
.  175 
.  175 

.  177 
.  179 

.  179 
.  182 
.  185 
.  186 
.  186 
.  188 


CONTENTS 


xvn 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

IGNITION 

PAGE 

Sources  of  electricity . 191 

Primary  batteries . 191 

Accumulators . 192 

Amperes,  volts  and  watts . 193 

Series  and  parallel  coupling . 193 

The  construction  of  an  accumulator . 195 

The  electric  circuit . 196 

Low -tension  battery  ignition . 197 

The  inductive  properties  of  electricity . 197 

The  low -tension  magneto . 198 

Timing  the  spark . 200 

The  low-tension  igniter . 201 

Variable  low-tension  ignition . 202 

The  rise  and  fall  of  magnetic  induction . 202 

The  low-tension  circuit . 204 

High-tension  ignition . 204 

Non-trembler  coils . 205 

Trembler  coils . 205 

The  condenser . 207 

High-tension  magneto  ignition . 208 

The  primary  circuit  of  a  high-tension  magneto . 209 

The  secondary  circuit .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  211 

The  safety  spark  gap . 212 

CHAPTER  XIX 

TEE  COOLING  OF  THE  CYLINDERS 

The  necessity  for  cooling  . . 213 

The  thermo-syphon  system . 213 

The  pumped  circulation  .  214 

The  radiator . 215 

The  fan . 216 

Air  cooling . 216 

The  water  used . 217 

CHAPTER  XX 

TRANSMISSION 

The  object  of  the  flywheel . 218 

The  clutch  in  driving  and  gear  changing . 219 

b 


XVlll 


CONTENTS 


The  gears  in  neutral  and  their  ratio 
Transmission  summarized  . 

The  single-cylinder  flywheel 
The  ordinary  cone  clutch  . 

The  reversed  cone  clutch 
The  multiple -disc  clutch 
The  single-plate  type  . 

The  expanding  variety 

The  attachment  of  the  gear  box  . 

The  working  of  the  gear  lever  . 

The  direction  of  gear  wheel  revolution 
Constant  mesh  gears  . 

The  direct  drive  . 

Unit  construction  . 

Gear  box  design  . 

Gear  wheels  . 

The  differential  gear  . 

The  back  axle . 

Epicyclic  gears  . 

The  Adams  gear . 

The  Linley  gear  box  . 


PAGE 

.  219 
.  219 

.  220 
.  220 
.  221 
.  222 
.  222 
.  223 
.  228 
.  224 
.  224 
.  224 
.  225 
.  226 
.  226 
.  226 
.  227 
.  228 
.  229 
.  231 
.  233 


The  gravity  feed  system 

CHAPTER  XXI 

lubrication 

.  235 

. 

.  236 

Splash  lubrication 

. 

.  237 

The  forced  feed  method 

.  .  •  *  '  • 

.  237 

Straining  the  oil . 

. 

.  238 

Replenishment  and  over- 

■lubrication . 

•  •  • 

.  239 

Lubricants  . 

. 

The  service  brake 

CHAPTER  XXII 

brakes 

. 

.  241 
.  241 

The  emergency  brake . 

. 

.  242 

Brake  friction  • 

. 

.  243 

Pedals 

.  .  •  • 

.  243 

The  transmission  brake 

. 

.  245 

The  brake  lever  and  its  connections  . 

CONTENTS 


XIX 


PAGE 

The  internal  expanding  wheel  brake . 246 

Compensating  devices . 247 

Double  action . 247 

Front  wheel  brakes . 248 

CHAPTER  XXIII 

THE  STEERING  GEAR 

The  Ackermann  axle . 250 

The  steering  mechanism . 250 

The  design  of  the  ball  joint  and  steering  arm . 251 

Wheel  lock . 252 

Steering  wheels  and  tillers . 252 

Steering  column  angle . 253 

Adjustable  columns . 253 

Irreversible  steering . 254 

Right-  and  left-hand  controls . 254 

CHAPTER  XXIV 

WHEELS 

The  function  of  road  wheels . 255 

The  artillery  wheel . 255 

Wheel-making  . . 256 

Dished  wheels . 258 

Tangential  spokes . 258 

Metal  wheels . 258 

Wire  wheels . 259 

Resilient  wheels . 261 

Wheel  sizes . 262 

CHAPTER  XXV 

TYRES 

The  outer  cover . 263 

Inner  tube  protection  ...........  264 

Pneumatic  tyres  necessary  for  high-speed  vehicles . 264 

Solid  tyre  attachment . 265 

The  manufacture  of  rubber . 265 

Making  the  inner  tube  . . 266 


XX 


CONTENTS 


Construction  of  an  outer  cover  . 

Solid  tyre  manufacture 
Tyre  manipulation  .... 

Attaching  the  tyre  .... 

Detaching  the  tyre  .... 

Tyre  preservation  .... 

Tyre  repairs  . 

Mileage . 

Tyre  pressures  and  loads 
Tyre  sizes 

Detachable  rims,  flanges,  and  wheels  . 
Tyre  fillings  .  .  •  •  » 

Cushion  tyres . 


PAGE 

.  266 

.  268 
.  269 
.  269 
.  271 
.  271 
.  272 

.  274 

.  274 
.  275 
.  276 
.  278 
.  279 


CHAPTER  XXYI 

SPRINGS 


The  function  of  springs 
Types  used  .... 
Methods  of  attachment 
Spring  steel 

The  cementation  process  . 
Special  spring  steels  . 

The  length  of  springs  . 
Considerations  as  to  strength 
Manufacture  of  springs 
Hardening  and  tempering  . 
Spring  dimensions 


.  280 
.  280 
.  288 
.  284 
.  285 
.  285 
.  286 
.  286 
.  289 
.  290 
.  291 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

CHASSIS  ACCESSORIES 

Hooters . 

Electric  horns . 

Exhaust  whistles . 

Syrens . 

Foot  bells 

Speedometers . 

Jacks  . 


.  294 
.  294 
.  295 
.  295 
.  296 
.  296 
.  298 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXVIII 

THE  PRESERVATION  OF  THE  CAR 

Preservation  means  economy  and  absence  of  breakdown  . 
Systematic  and  periodical  attention  ..... 

The  preliminaries  of  every  journey . 

Lubrication  and  greasing  most  important  .... 

Draining  out  and  flushing . 

Attention  given  to  radiator  and  spring  plates 

Ignition  precautions  ........ 

Valve  grinding  and  care  of  the  clutch  .... 

The  care  of  the  bodywork . 

The  motor  house . 

Washing  a  varnished  panel . 

Cleaning  the  metal  parts  ....... 

The  care  of  cloth  and  leather  trimmings  .  .  ... 

Removing  spots  ......... 

General  precautions  ........ 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

MOTORING  AND  ITS  COST 

The  price  of  chassis . 

The  price  of  the  body . 

Extras . 

The  complete  capital  outlay . 

Depreciation . 

Petrol . 

Lubricant . 

Tyres . 

Repairs  and  renewals . 

Insurance  . . 

Wages . 

Taxes . 

The  cost  per  mile  run  . . 


CHAPTER  XXX 

COMMERCIAL  MOTORING  AND  ITS  COST 

The  spread  of  the  use  of  commercial  motor  vehicles  . 

Motor  vans  favoured  by  stores  and  general  carriers  . 


xx  r 


PAGE 

.  299 
.  299 
.  299 

.  300 
.  300 
.  301 
.  302 
.  302 
.  302 
.  303 
.  304 
.  304 

.  305 
.  306 

.  306 


.  308 
.  309 

.  309 
.  310 
.  310 
.  311 
.  311 
.  311 
.  312 
.  312 
.  312 
.  313 
.  313 


.  315 
.  316 


CONTENTS 


xxii 


Possible  effect  on  price  of  commodities 
The  cost  of  running  analysed 

Capital  outlay . 

Cost  of  the  chassis  .... 

Cost  of  the  body . 

Interest  on  outlay  .... 

Depreciation . 

Insurance . 

Wages . 

Fuel  and  lubricant  .... 

Storage  . 

Tyres . 

Repairs . 

Extras . 

Cost  per  mile . 

A  list  of  trades  using  motor  vehicles  . 

Index  ..•••• 


PAGE 

and  the  welfare  of  railways  .  .317 

. 317 

. 318 

. 318 

. 318 

. 319 

. 319 

. 319 

. 319 

. 319 

. 319 

. 319 

. 319 

. 320 

. 320 

.  .  .  .  .  .  *  321 


.  323 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG<  PAGE 

1.  Turnunder  patterns . 1 

2.  Ogee  turnunder . . 

3.  Two-seated  or  single  phaeton,  with  tool  box  at  rear  ....  18 

4.  Three-seated  car  . . .  .  21 

5.  Tonneau  phaeton . 23 

6.  Side-entrance  rotund  phaeton . 28 

7.  Side-entrance  tulip  phaeton . 29 

8.  Side-entrance  Hoi  des  Beiges  phaeton  .  .  .  ...  30 

9.  Protected  phaeton . 31 

10.  Single  landaulette . . 

11.  D  -fronted  double  landaulette . 37 

12.  Angular  limousine  landaulette . 38 

13.  Limousine . 43 

14.  Single  enclosed  car,  with  tool  box  at  rear . 46 

15.  Double  enclosed  car . . 

16.  Shooting  brake,  wagonette  or  luggage  car . 49 

17.  Flush-sided  phaeton  (working  drawing)  ....  .facing  64 

18.  Limousine  landaulette,  showing  the  more  important  parts  of  a  motor 

body . . 

19.  General  exterior  view  of  a  petrol  engine . 164 

20.  Section  through  a  pair  of  cylinders,  showing  the  arrangement  of  the 

pistons,  connecting  rods,  and  crank  shaft . 171 

21.  End  section  of  a  petrol  engine  (showing  valve  and  its  mechanism)  .  176 

22.  Method  of  supporting  crank  shaft  in  top  half  of  crank  case  .  .178 

23.  Single-cylinder  arrangement  with  split  flywheel . 180 


XXIV 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


24.  Two-cylinder  crank  shaft  arrangement,  cranks  set  at  180  degrees. 

No  water  jacketing  between  cylinders . 

25.  Two-cylinder  crank  shaft  arrangement,  cranks  set  together  . 

26.  Three-cylinder,  four-bearing  crank  shaft  arrangement  • 

27.  Four-cylinder,  five-bearing  crank  shaft  arrangement 

28.  Four-cylinder,  three-bearing  crank  shaft  arrangement  . 

29.  Six-cylinder,  four -bearing  crank  shaft  arrangement 

30.  A  simple  cell . 

81.  Cell  coupling . 

32.  Diagram  of  wires  with  no  direct  communication  . 

33.  A  pair  of  accumulators  joined  in  series  .  .  •  • 

34.  Diagram  showing  the  path  of  the  current  in  the  high  and  low-tension 

circuits . 

35.  Wiring  diagram  of  a  four-cylinder  engine  with  high-tension  battery 

and  coil  system . 

36.  Wiring  diagram  of  a  four-cylinder  engine  with  high-tension  magneto  . 

37.  Cooling  arrangement  of  cylinders  (natural  circulation) 

38.  Four-speed  (selective)  gear  box  diagram  ... 

39.  Diagram  illustrating  the  Adams  (epicyclic)  change-speed  gear  . 


181 

181 

182 

183 

184 

185 
191 

194 

195 

196 

203 

206 

207 

214 

225 

232 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  VARIETIES  OF  MOTOR  BODIES  DEFINED 


There  are  twenty  or  more  varieties  of  motor  bodies,  some  of 
which  have  been  directly  adapted  from  horse-carriage  styles.  /A 
body  is  named  according  to  its  general  outline,  seating  capacity, 
and  arrangement,  and  whether  open  or  closed,  or  a  combination 
of  these  last  two  features.  One  body  may  also  differ  from  another 


according  to  its  turnunder  pattern,  that  is,  the  shape  of  the  panels 
on  a  vertical  section.  The  turnunder  may  be  straight  or  plain, 

B 


2  MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 

when  it  is  an  inclined  line;  rotund ,  a  curve  with  fulness  at  the 
bottom ;  tulip,  a  curve  with  fulness  at  the  top,  and  the  opposite  to 
rotund ;  and  Roi  des  Beiges,  a  return  curve  combining  both  the 
last  two  turnunder  patterns,  the  tulip  curve  being  at  the  top.  All 
these  styles  are  usually  associated  with  the  turnunder  between  the 
elbow  and  the  seat  line,  or,  in  a  full-panelled  body,  between  the 
elbow  line  and  chassis.  The  ogee  turnunder  is  a  reversal  of  the 
Roi  des  Beiges  return  curve,  the  latter  without  doubt  being  evolved 
from  the  former,  as  it  is  usually  adopted  in  a  modified  form  in 
horsed  landaus  for  the  turnunder  of  the  doorway,  and  is  used  in 
many  limousines  and  landaulettes  to-day.  The  turnunder  of  the 

1 


Fig.  2.— Ogee  Turnunder. 

doorway  is  usually  a  rotund  sweep,  in  all  types  of  bodies  of  noimal 
width. 

(1)  Two-seated  Cars,  or  Single  Phcietons .  These  have  a  driving 
seat  only,  which  may  be  a  single  seat  with  or  without  a  cential 
division,  or  consist  of  two  separate  bucket  seats.  Side  doors  and 
wind  screen  are  fitted  to  all  modern  types,  and  there  is  generally  a 
cape  cart  or  leather  hood.  The  portion  behind  the  seats  consists  of 
a  large  locker  opening  from  the  top.  Racing  cars  are  low-built 
single  phaetons. 

(2)  Three-seated  Cars.—k  large  number  of  two-seated  cars  are 
fitted  with  a  fixed  or  collapsible  single  seat  at  the  rear,  and  the  hind 
locker  forms  a  convenient  place  in  which  to  fold  this  seat  when  not 
required.  In  some  earlier  types  of  chassis,  owing  to  the  different 
disposition  of  the  engine,  it  was  possible  to  fit  the  extra  seat  forward 


THE  VARIETIES  OF  MOTOR  BODIES  DEFINED  3 

of  the  steering  wheel.  Weather  protection  is  seldom  extended  to 
the  hind  seat. 

(3)  Tonneau  Phaetons ,  or  Tonneaus. — These  were  the  most 
important  type  of  body  until  chassis  were  lengthened  sufficiently 
to  give  a  proper  side  entrance.  The  normal  type  was  curved  out 
in  plan  so  as  to  accommodate  one  person  in  each  hind  corner,  and 
at  the  same  time  provide  a  gangway  leading  to  a  narrow  hind 
entrance.  This  inconvenience  was  compromised  by  various  forms 
of  front  entrance,  in  which  the  near  side  portion  of  the  front  seat 
hinged,  or  swung  round,  or  in  some  cases  this  seat  was  done  away 
with  entirely.  The  weather  protection  consisted  of  a  cape  cart 
or  leather  hood  with  a  detachable  flap  if  entrance  was  at  the  rear, 
and  sometimes  a  canopy  was  fitted.  A  limousine  (q.v.)  top  was 
often  fitted  so  as  to  afford  complete  weather  protection.  The 
windows  had  to  slide  or  hinge,  as  the  lower  portion  of  the  body 
was  not  designed  to  allow  for  glass  runs.  Front  entrances  were 
adopted,  in  earlier  types  of  limousines  and  landaulettes,  while 
modifications  of  this  principle  are  in  use  to-day. 

(4)  Side-entrance  Phaetons . — This  is  the  most  popular  type  of 
body,  and  constitutes  a  “  standard  body  ”  with  several  motor  manu¬ 
facturers.  The  first  patterns  were  simply  tonneau  phaetons  with 
the  hind  portion  pushed  further  back,  and  a  pair  of  doors  let  in. 
In  modern  patterns  there  is  a  tendency  to  do  away  with  the  distinct 
bulge  at  the  hind  seat,  using  instead  a  gentle  curve  from  back 
to  front.  The  supplanting  of  the  hind-entrance  tonneau  by  the 
side-entrance  one  led  to  the  old  hind  gangway  being  utilized  as 
a  place  for  an  extra  seat,  from  which  has  arisen  the  demand  for 
“  three  on  the  back  seat”  in  this  and  other  types  of  bodies,  which 
has  done  much  to  retard  the  progress  of  motor  body  design.  A 
side-entrance  phaeton  usually  has  seats  for  two  on  the  driving 
seat,  and  for  three  on  the  hind  seat.  Longer  bodies  have  extra 
seats  fixed  to  the  lining  boards  behind  the  driving  seat,  or  two 
single  seats  may  be  placed  facing  forwards,  so  that  the  total  seating 
capacity  is,  in  these  cases,  for  seven  persons.  Doors  of  equal 
height  are  fitted  in  modern  patterns,  and  a  wind  shield,  together 
with  a  double  extension  cape  cart  hood,  is  almost  invariably  fitted. 
A  double  phaeton  has  both  seats  as  near  alike  as  possible.  A  triple 
phaeton  is  a  side-entrance  body  in  which  the  central  single  seats 


4 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


are  built  into  the  main  framework  of  the  body,  and  form  an  integral 
part  of  it.  Capt.  Masui’s  “  torpedo  ”  body,  the  styles  of  “  touring  ” 
car  used  in  the  Prince  Henry  trials,  were  amongst  the  main  influences 
which  led  to  an  improved  design  of  side-entrance  phaeton,  which 
has  no  recess  at  the  seat  line,  but  has  full  panelling  like  a  park 
victoria.  In  plan  the  body  is  straight  or  flat-sided,  although  there 
is  a  slight  side  sweep. 

(5)  Protected  Phaetons. — These  are  side-entrance  bodies  having 
a  canopy  and  a  hind  seat  protected  by  panelling  above  the  elbow, 
relieved  with  side  or  backlights  or  both.  This  type  may  also  have 
an  extra  set  of  seats,  either  facing  or  with  their  backs  to  the 
driving  seat,  in  which  case  they  may  be  similarly  protected  as 
the  main  hind  seats.  “ Protected”  is  a  term  which  may  be  taken 
to  mean  the  provision  of  panelling  with  or  without  windows  as 
a  weather  protection,  and  is  a  scheme  which  is  extended  to  two- 
seated  cars,  and  the  driving  seats  of  limousines,  and  landaulettes. 
Half-doors  may  be  utilized  in  conjunction  with  this  style,  but 
the  use  of  a  full  door  with  a  light  complete  makes  the  body  an 
enclosed  car,  such  as  is  described  below,  under  (14)  and  (15). 

(6)  Single  Broughams. — These  are  side-entrance  bodies  with 
driving  seat  and  an  enclosed  hind  seat.  There  are  lights  in  the 
doors  and  front  of  the  body,  but  none  in  the  upper  side  quarters. 
A  canopy  may  be  fitted  to  protect  the  driving  seat,  and  high  front 
doors  and  windshield  will  be  fitted  in  most  cases.  The  French  term 
coupe  is  synonymous. 

(7)  Double  Broughams. — The  addition  of  a  square,  D- shaped,  or 
circular  front,  between  the  doorway  and  the  driving  seat,  to  a  single 
brougham,  constitutes  a  double  or  fronted  brougham,  and  is  a 
pattern  which  has  found  little  favour  as  a  motor  carriage. 

(8)  Single  Landaulettes. — This  is  the  most  popular  type  of  closed 
motor  carriage,  and  has  become  familiar  to  all  as  a  “  taxicab.” 
The  disposition  of  the  seats  is  the  same  as  in  a  single  brougham, 
but  the  top,  or  that  part  which  covers  the  hind  seat,  is  made  to 
fold  down,  the  upper  quarters  being  made  of  leather  fastened  to 
hinged  pillars  and  slats.  There  are  various  ways  in  which  the  body 
may  be  wholly  or  partly  opened. 

(9)  Double  Landaulettes. — These  differ  from  single  landaulettes 
in  the  same  way  that  single  broughams  differ  from  double  ones. 


THE  VARIETIES  OF  MOTOR  BODIES  DEFINED  5 


(10)  Limousine  Lanclaulettes  (Fr.  landaulet  limousine ),  also  called 
side-light  landaulettes,  extra  side-light  landaulettes,  and  described 
sometimes  as  three-quarter  landaulettes  and  double  landaulettes. 
This  type  differs  from  the  single  landaulette  in  having  a  side  light 
behind  the  doorway,  instead  of  in  front,  as  in  a  double  landau¬ 
lette.  The  description  three-quarter  landaulette  is  the  translation 
from  the  French  term,  landaulet  trois-quarts ,  for  a  double  lan¬ 
daulette,  but  as  it  really  means  a  landaulette  with  three  quarters 
(the  doorway,  front  seat,  and  hind  seat  being  each  a  “  quarter,” 
a  term  not  to  be  confused  with  a  fourth  part),  it  is  admissible  in 
describing  this  kind  of  landaulette,  but  it  is  never  used  by  the  French 
people  themselves.  There  are  various  ways  of  collapsing  the 
upper  structure,  and  sometimes  a  square  or  D -front  is  added,  so 
that  there  are  three  lights  each  side.  The  proper  term  for  such 
a  body  is  a  double  or  square-fronted  (as  the  case  may  be)  limousine 
landaulette. 

(11)  Landaus . — These  bodies  have  a  driving  seat,  and  a  closed 
front  and  hind  seat  separated  by  a  doorway.  The  upper  quarters 
are  of  leather,  constructed  to  meet  over  the  doorway,  and  open 
outwards  in  opposite  directions.  Although  the  front  quarter  is 
made  as  short  as  possible,  so  as  to  keep  the  body  compact,  the 
landau  body  is  not  suitable  for  a  chassis  where  the  engine  is 
mounted  in  front  of  the  dashboard,  as  a  very  long  wheel  base  is 
required,  creating  disadvantages  which  quite  outweigh  any  con¬ 
venience  which  may  be  obtained  in  the  body.  A  double  landaulette, 
or  a  limousine  landaulette,  however  large  the  extra  light  or  body 
may  be,  cannot  be  described  as  a  landau,  of  which  the  essential 
feature  is  not  size,  but  opposing  upper  quarters,  capable  of  folding. 
A  double  landaulette,  which  has  a  folding  framework  to  the  side 
and  front  lights,  may  be  described  as  a  side-light  landau  if  the 
exterior  effect  of  the  lower  front  panel  balance  that  of  the  hind  one. 

\J  (12)  Cabriolets ,  or  Landaulette  Phaetons. — These  bodies  combine 
the  features  of  a  side-entrance  phaeton  and  a  landaulette,  for  which 
reason  the  term  “  landaulette  phaeton  ”  is  more  suitable  than 
“  cabriolet,”  which  only  refers  to  a  certain  shape  of  body.  The 
ordinary  cabriolet  is  a  single  landaulette  in  principle,  with  more 
dome  to  the  roof,  and  rounded  corners  at  the  rear.  The  whole  of 
the  superstructure  collapses  either  separate  to  or  in  conjunction  with 


6 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


a  leather  canopy  to  the  driving  seat ;  cabriolets  may  also  have  a  side 
light  like  a  limousine  landaulette,  when  they  are  properly  called 
limousine  landaulette  phaetons.  Cabriolets  have  been  designed  in 
which  the  driving  seat  is  fully  enclosed.  The  bodies  are  on  the 
whole  somewhat  complicated,  and  are  not  so  economical  in  wear  and 
tear  as  a  simpler  single  or  limousine  landaulette. 

(18)  Limousines. — Small  bodies  of  this  type  are  practically 
broughams  with  a  side  light  to  the  top  hind  quarter,  instead  of  a 
plain  panel ;  in  fact,  such  bodies  are  often  called  coupe  limousines. 
Small  limousines  are,  however,  generally  longer  in  the  main  portion 
of  the  body  than  broughams.  Limousines  have  usually  hind  round 
corners,  and  the  seats  built  into  the  body  are  always  arranged 
transversely.  Extra  seats  of  various  patterns  are  fitted  to  face 
in  various  directions.  The  main  portion  of  the  body  may  com¬ 
municate  by  means  of  a  door,  centrally  placed  behind  the  driving 
seat,  so  that  a  “  corridor  ”  entrance  is  provided.  Large  and 
luxurious  limousines  are  sometimes  called  “  pullmans  ”  and 
“  saloons,”  but  there  is  little  to  recommend  the  practice.  Limou¬ 
sines  are  sometimes  built  with  a  square,  or  D -front,  when  they  are 
properly  called  a  double,  square,  or  D -fronted  limousine,  as  the 
case  may  be.  Windows  may  be  arranged  all  round  the  upper  part 
without  any  relief  of  panelling.  Such  a  body  is  often  referred  to  as 
a  “  berline.” 

(14)  Single  Enclosed  Cars. — These  are  bodies  in  which  the  driving- 
seat  is  fully  enclosed.  The  upper  portion  may  be  fixed  or  detach¬ 
able,  and  of  the  brougham,  limousine  or  landaulette  type,  which 
variations  suggest  the  subdivisions  under  which  this  class  of  bodies 
may  be  placed.  It  is  incorrect  to  call  such  a  body,  for  instance,  a 
single  landaulette,  as  the  proper  body  so  called  has  a  separate 
driving  seat.  “  Self-driving  ”  is  a  good  term  to  use,  as  these 
bodies  are  often  designed  so  that  the  owner  may  himself  drive,  and 
this  description  should  be  added  to  the  term,  such  as  “  limousine  or 
landaulette,”  which  is  descriptive  of  the  general  appearance  and 
type  of  protection  afforded.  The  single  enclosed  type  may  have 
an  extra  seat  at  the  rear,  which  is  seldom  protected. 

(15)  Double  Enclosed  Cars.  —  These  are  limousines  or 
landaulettes  in  which  the  driving  seat  is  fully  enclosed.  A  corridor 
entrance  may  provide  communication  between  the  driving  and 


THE  VARIETIES  OF  MOTOR  BODIES  DEFINED  7 


main  portion  of  the  body,  or  the  whole  seating  may  be  arranged 
without  any  division  at  all,  in  which  case  there  is  usually  a  single 
entrance  each  side  only.  These  bodies  may  be  subdivided  under 
the  heads  mentioned  under  No.  14.  The  term  “  pullman,” 
“  saloon,”  and  so  on,  is  also  used  indiscriminately  in  connection 
with  these  bodies,  as  with  large  limousines. 

(16)  Wagonettes. — The  essential  feature  of  a  wagonette  is  that 
the  seats,  in  the  main  portion  of  the  body,  shall  be  arranged 
longitudinally.  A  hind  entrance  is  usually  adopted,  although  in 
some  shooting  brakes  side  entrances  may  also  be  provided.  Lons¬ 
dale  wagonettes  have  a  folding  head  working  in  the  same  way  as 
a  landau  (see  No.  11),  and  the  end  view  is  therefore  practically  the 
same  as  a  side  view  of  that  type  of  body,  while  the  side  elevation 
corresponds  to  the  back  or  front  view  of  a  landau.  By  this  means 
one  obtains  the  advantages  of  a  landau  on  a  short  wheel-base. 

(17)  Omnibuses. — A  wagonette  with  a  fixed  or  removed  top  fitted 
to  it  becomes  an  omnibus.  The  lights  may  be  made  to  slide,  hinge, 
or  drop  according  to  the  design.  Wagonettes  and  omnibuses, 
having  hind  entrances,  do  not  find  much  favour  as  private  vehicles. 

(18)  Dog-cart  Phaetons—  Although  largely  used  during  the 
first  two  or  three  years  of  motoring,  the  Jackson  car  is  about  the 
only  modern  instance  where  a  body  with  bent  sides,  or  other 
characteristics  of  the  countless  varieties  of  two  and  four-wheeled  dog¬ 
carts,  having  both  seats  facing  generally  forwards,  and  not  back-to- 
back,  is  used. 

The  above  varieties  will  be  found  to  include  all  modern  cars. 
The  sociable,  barouche,  four-in-hand  coach,  canoe  landau,  Stanhope 
phaeton,  and  other  horse-drawn  carriage  types,  have  been  adopted 
to  motor  traction  in  a  few  instances,  but  not  in  sufficient  numbers 
to  be  worthy  of  particular  mention. 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  DIMENSIONS  OF  THE  BODY 

The  chief  influence  on  the  size  of  a  motor  body  is  the  normal 
dimensions  of  the  adult  human  frame.  The  doorway  is  roughly 
the  width  across  the  hips  or  shoulders,  although,  as  the  body  is 
usually  entered  at  an  angle,  this  measurement  may  safely  be 
reduced  a  few  inches.  The  height  of  a  closed  body,  such  as  a 
limousine  or  landaulette,  is  consistent  with  such  crouched  position 
as  may  be  maintained  with  a  minimum  of  inconvenience  for  a  few 
seconds,  while  the  height  of  the  seat  above  the  floor  (including  the 
cushion),  its  width  and  depth,  is  dependent  upon  the  length  of  leg 
and  size  of  hips.  The  overall  height  should  also  be  sufficient  to 
clear  the  hat  of  a  lady  passenger  when  seated. 

Head  Room. — This  dimension  is  reckoned  either  from  the  top  of 
the  floorboards,  or  the  top  of  the  seatboard  to  under  the  centre  of 
the  crown  of  the  roof.  In  limousines  and  landaulettes  the  height 
from  the  floor  will  average  5  ft.  The  height  of  the  seat  will  depend 
on  the  thickness  of  the  cushion,  and  normal  measurements  are 
10  ins.  to  top  of  the  seatboard  in  front  and  9  ins.  at  the  back, 
allowing  for  6  ins.  of  cushion.  With  landaulettes  the  headroom  has 
also  to  be  designed  so  that  the  hoopstick  which  has  the  least  radius, 
or  is  nearest  the  doorway,  shall  clear  the  backrest  of  the  hind  seat, 
otherwise  it  foreshortens  the  interior  accommodation  when  the  head 
is  open.  Similar  allowances  are  made  in  side-entrance  phaetons 
having  cape  cart  hoods. 

Leg  Room. — This  dimension  refers  to  the  vertical,  as  well  as  the 
diagonal,  position  taken  up  by  the  lower  leg  when  one  is  seated  in 
an  ordinary  manner.  Some  modern  bodies  are  fitted  with  low 
seats  which  practically  admit  of  lounging.  The  height  of  the  seat, 
16  ins.,  as  given  in  the  previous  paragraph,  allows  for  comfortable 


THE  DIMENSIONS  OF  THE  BODY 


9 


leg-room  vertically,  while  from  22  ins.  to  24  ins.  are  required  for  the 
diagonal  measurement,  which  is  an  approximate  measurement  of 
the  distance  between  the  edge  of  the  driving  seat  and  pedals. 

Knee  Boom. — The  horizontal  measurement  allowed  for  the  upper 
leg  forward  from  the  edge  of  the  seat  when  seated  should  not  be 
less  than  11  ins.  In  bodies  where  there  are  an  additional  pair  of 
single  seats  facing  forwards,  one  has  often  to  consider  whether  to 
make  this  allowance  of  11  ins.  and  encroach  on  the  gangway  at  the 
door,  or  else  cramp  the  knees  of  the  passengers  on  the  hind  seat. 
A  body  has  to  be  of  considerable  length  behind  the  doorway  if  a 
pair  of  extra  seats  are  to  be  fitted  up  comfortably,  and  the  doorway 
left  clear,  in  fact  48  ins.  would  not  be  too  much  for  the  length  on 
the  seat  line  behind  the  door.  Knee  room  in  the  facing  seats  of 
wagonettes  is  an  important  item,  and  the  measurement  between 
the  seats  should  not  be  less  than  18  ins.,  which  does  not  allow  for 
any  gangway  between  the  seated  passengers.  In  a  public  service 
omnibus  the  gangway  is  at  least  26  ins.  Knee  room  has  also  to  be 
considered  as  between  the  top  of  the  driving  cushion  and  the  under 
surface  of  the  steering  wheel :  an  average  measurement  for  this 
clearance  is  9  ins. 

Seat  Boom. — An  average-sized  person  cannot  sit  with  comfort 
for  any  length  of  time  on  a  seat  of  less  that  16  ins.  in  width ; 
this,  however,  does  not  strictly  apply  if  the  seat  is  isolated.  Two 
persons  sitting  together  on  a  32-in.  seat  would  be  fairly  wedged 
in,  even  with  a  moderate  amount  of  clothing.  In  many  motor 
bodies  the  allowance  is  at  least  22  ins.  per  person,  especially 
when  two  only  are  carried,  as  in  a  driving  or  hind  seat.  It  is 
when  three  persons  are  carried  that  the  measurement  has  to  be 
considerably  reduced,  and  16  ins.  and  17  ins.  are  often  the  allow¬ 
ance  found  in  an  otherwise  luxuriously  appointed  landaulette. 
The  depth  of  seat,  from  back  to  front,  may  be  anything  from 
16  to  24  ins.,  22  ins.  being  a  normal  measurement  for  a  comfort¬ 
able  hind  seat,  while  the  chauffeur  can  usually  drive  with  ease 

with  an  allowance  of  18  or  19  ins. 

Gangways  and  Doorways. — The  most  important  gangways  in 
a  body  are  the  entrances  at  the  doors.  One  can  squeeze  through 
a  16-in.  opening,  if  the  struggle  is  made  sideways.  The  normal 
measurement,  however,  is  21  ins.,  which  is  more  essential  above 


10 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


the  waist  or  elbow  line  than  below  for  the  legs.  The  width  of 
doorways  has  of  late  shown  a  tendency  to  increase,  and  measure¬ 
ments  greater  than  24  ins.  are  often  met  with.  To  increase  this 
measurement  means  a  heavier  door,  requiring  stronger  hinges, 
stronger  framework  to  fasten  them  to,  and  a  structure  consequently 
more  susceptible  to  binding.  Half-doors,  such  as  are  used  as 
front  or  wind  doors,  need  not  exceed  19  ins.  to  21  ins.,  as  passage¬ 
way  has  only  to  be  allowed  for  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  but 
an  increase  in  width  of  a  half-door  tends  to  comfort.  Gangways 
between  seats,  being  inside  the  body,  have  to  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  in  order  to  economize  space.  From  12  ins.  to  14  ins. 
may  be  reckoned  as  an  average  dimension  in  this  direction. 

The  Influence  of  Chassis  Sizes. — Before  the  motor  body  builder 
can  arrange  the  dimensions  of  the  body  he  has  to  consult  the 
blue  print  provided  by  the  motor  manufacturer.  In  some  happy 
instances  he  is  practically  unfettered,  in  other  cases  he  is  seriously 
hampered,  generally  because  the  motorist  insists  on  a  style  of 
body  which  is  not  consistent  with  the  design  of  the  chassis. 

The  position  of  the  brake  and  gear  levers,  steering  wheel, 
and  pedals  decides  the  location  of  the  driving  seat.  A  raked 
steering  column  generally  means  that  the  measurement,  from 
the  dashboard,  will  be  increased  from  the  normal  measurement 
of  24  ins.  up  to  something  in  the  neighbourhood  of  30  ins.  The 
distance  which  the  levers  stand  away  from  the  side  of  the  chassis 
also  influences  the  shape  of  the  front  doors.  Possibly  in  future 
chassis  these  levers  will  be  placed  centrally,  as  has  already  been 
adopted  in  some  American  cars.  The  height  of  the  driving  seat  is 
often  dependent  on  the  depth  of  a  petrol  tank  placed  beneath  it 
when  the  carburettor  is  gravity  fed. 

The  width  of  the  main  doorway  used  to  be  greatly  influenced 
by  the  position  of  the  hind  tyre,  but  now  that  wheelbases  are 
more  generous  this  does  not  so  often  apply,  except  when  a  large 
body  is  crowded  on  to  a  small  chassis.  A  vertical  wing  clearance 
of  4^  ins.  to  6  ins.  having  been  allowed,  the  lower  part  of  the  door 
is  curved  round  on  the  wing  side  so  as  to  economize  space  where 
it  is  not  required.  The  turnunder  of  the  body  also  assists  the 
opening  door  to  clear  the  wing.  The  position  of  the  wheels  also 
influences  the  width  of  the  body,  and  consequent  seating  capacity, 


THE  DIMENSIONS  OF  THE  BODY  n 

especially  if  the  seats  are  placed  low.  There  are  few  chassis 
which  do  not  allow  of  two  being  seated  comfortably  at  any  height 
inside  the  body,  but  there  are  few  which  allow  of  three  being 
easily  accommodated  on  a  low  cushion.  A  compromise  is  usually 
effected  by  cutting  away  a  portion  of  the  side  framing  (paddle¬ 
boxing),  which  gives  hard  ends  to  the  cushion,  or  else  building 
the  seat  over  the  wheels,  which  does  not  always  give  a  proper 
height  from  the  floor,  unless  the  latter  is  built  up  higher  than 
usual,  necessitating  a  heavier  and  ugly  bottom  to  the  body. 

The  length  of  the  chassis,  behind  the  dashboaid,  should  be 
the  same  as  that  of  the  body,  hut  often  this  is  ignored,  making 
an  unsightly  vehicle  and  one  which  is  liable  to  skid,  and  bear 
unduly  on  the  hind  tyres. 

A  chassis  which  is  curved  up  at  the  rear  usually  means  that 
the  straight  portion  is  a  couple  of  inches  lower  than  it  would 
otherwise  be,  so  that  the  body  will  be  easier  to  get  into.  Chassis 
are  also  cranked  in  the  centre,  so  that  the  body  is  lowered  a  further 
few  inches,  but  the  crank  is  useless  unless  the  particular  type  of 
body  for  which  it  is  designed  is  mounted  upon  it. 

Allowances  for  the  Framework.— Bearing  in  mind  these  ele¬ 
mentary  considerations  which  govern  the  size  of  a  body,  the 
designer  is  able  to  produce  any  style  desired  by  allowing,  beyond 
the  measurements  stated,  the  thickness  and  depth  of  the  pillars 

and  other  members  of  the  framework. 

In  a  limousine  an  allowance  of  2  ins.  has  to  be  made  foi  the 
front  standing  pillar  before  the  door  space  can  be  apportioned, 
and  we  must  have  the  same  measure,  at  least,  befoie  allowing 
for  the  side  light,  if  we  wish  to  bring  it  close  to  the  doorway.  In 
reckoning  the  width  of  the  body,  the  thickness  of  the  framing  has 
again  to  be  considered,  and  some  5  ins.  or  6  ins.  are  added  to  the 
interior  dimensions  in  order  to  arrive  at  the  overall  measurement. 


CHAPTER  III 


BODY  DESIGN  {PHAETONS) 

The  Horizontal  Tines  of  the  Body. — The  motorist  judges  the 
appearance  of  a  motor  body  chiefly  by  its  exterior  effect;  the 
practical  man  would  prefer  to  pull  it  to  pieces  before  giving 
his  verdict,  as  good  design  relies  more  on  good  constructional 
arrangement  than  on  mere  outline.  The  bottom  of  the  body 
follows  the  outline  of  the  chassis,  the  seat  line  (which  will  not 
be  visible  in  a  flush-sided  body  or  where  there  are  plain  full 
panels)  is  usually  a  straight  line  running  under  the  driving  seat 
and  continuing  sometimes  across,  but  generally  broken  at  the  door¬ 
way,  to  the  back  of  the  body,  while  the  elbow  line,  which  is  from 
11  ins.  to  18  ins.  above  the  seat  line,  is  designed,  when  there  is 
an  open  seat,  so  that  the  arm  may  be  rested  comfortably  at  that 
part  of  the  body,  but  where  the  seat  is  enclosed  or  the  panel  is 
deep  an  inside  elbow  may  be  placed  in  position  independently  of 
any  exterior  line.  It  is  usual  to  raise  the  line  at  the  elbow  at  the 
back  end,  which  is  only  an  inch  or  two  in  the  normal  pattern 
of  landaulette  with  square  hind  corners,  or  some  6  ins.  to  9  ins.  in 
many  side-entrance  phaetons,  where  the  elbow  line  rises  in  a  return 
curve  to  meet  the  top  line  of  the  back  panel,  and  to  provide 
comfortable  support  for  the  shoulders. 

The  roof  line,  which  is  usually  straight  from  back  to  front,  but 
curved  about  1J  ins.  from  side  to  side,  is  placed  some  5  ft.  from  the 
floor.  Thus  we  have  laid  down  the  main  horizontal  lines  of  the 
body. 

The  Vertical  Lines. — Regarding  the  vertical  lines,  the  dash¬ 
board  and  front  of  the  driving  seat  is  already  apportioned  out  by 
the  design  of  the  chassis,  so  that  we  have  left  the  lines  of  the 
doorway  and  the  back  of  the  body.  If  we  are  dealing  with  a 


BODY  DESIGN  (PHAETONS)  13 

closed  body,  which  has  a  drop  light  behind  the  driving  seat,  the 
door  position  will  be  governed  by  the  back  line  of  this  seat,  but  in 
an  open  body  with  a  round-cornered  driving  seat,  the  front  of  the 
door  may  be  brought  2  ins.  or  8  ins.  forward,  as  this  will  not  interfere 
with  entrance  at  an  angle.  The  back  line  of  the  body  is  generally 
drawn  when  the  designer  has  finished  apportioning  out  the  doors 
and  seats,  and  this  should  coincide  with  the  hind  cross  member  of 
the  chassis.  If  it  comes  in  front  of  this  so  much  the  better. 
There  are  many  side-entrance  phaetons  with  a  huge  space  between 
the  back  of  the  driving  seat  and  the  front  of  the  hind  seat,  sug¬ 
gesting  that  the  hind  seat  has  been  placed  above  the  end  of  the 
chassis  without  regard  to  even  maximum  knee  room  behind  the 
doorway,  the  chief  desire  being  to  fill  the  available  mounting 
space  with  body  work.  Many  hind  seats  are  wholly  behind  the 
hind  axle,  some  are  placed  centrally  over  it,  but  it  is  only  in 
exceptional  cases  that  the  seat  is  all  in  front  the  ideal  position. 

Moulding  Display— The  outline  of  a  body  is  mainly  expressed 
by  the  mouldings,  which  are  sometimes  formed  out  of  the  solid 
of  the  ash  framework,  or  else  as  wooden,  metal,  or  cane  strips 
pinned  or  screwed  on.  A  moulding  will  follow  closely  the  outline 
of  the  driving  seat,  the  framework  to  which  the  door  is  hinged, 
along  the  hind  seat  line,  right  round  the  back  of  the  body,  and 
also  along  the  elbow  in  a  similar  manner.  Such  mouldings  give  a 
finish  to  the  panelling,  and  also  assist  to  hide  the  means  whereby 
the  panel  itself  is  fixed  to  the  framework  beneath.  Apart  from 
such  necessary  mouldings,  others  are  introduced  merely  to  decorate 
the  body,  and  unless  the  scheme  is  carried  out  with  restraint  and 
good  taste,  it  becomes  a  most  sure  guide  to  the  want  of  ability  of 
the  designer,  as  the  “  breaking  up  ”  of  surfaces  is  often  badly  done, 
little  regard  being  given  to  good  freehand  outline  or  balance  of 
design.  In  a  large  body  an  extra  moulding  or  two  can  be  judiciously 
inserted  in  order  to  help  the  construction ;  for  instance,  it  would 
seldom  be  economical  to  run  one  piece  of  panelling  from  one  door 
right  round  the  back  to  the  opposite  door  in  a  long  body,  and  a 
vertical  moulding  in  the  centre  of  the  back,  or  one  in  each  hind 
corner,  allows  the  panelling  to  be  done  in  three  pieces,  such  lengths 
being  arranged  to  coincide  with  the  framing  of  the  body.  It  is 
generally  a  sign  of  bad  design  when  framing  or  other  means  of 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


fixing  has  to  be  inserted  merely  to  carry  a  moulding.  A  moulding 
is  often  run  parallel  below  the  elbow  of  the  body  or  driving  seat  so 
as  to  form  a  belt  panel,  which  can  be  coloured  in  contrast  to  the 
lower  portion,  and  is  only  desirable  when  the  panel  surface  is  deep 
and  requires  this  method  of  relief. 

The  toe  of  the  front  standing  pillar  is  an  instance  where 
symmetry  of  outline  has  been  studied  rather  than  actual  strength 
of  timber  required.  The  outward  sweep  of  the  bottom  of  the  pillar 
harmonizes  with  the  upward  sweep  of  the  elbow  line,  the  back  line 
of  the  bottom  of  the  hind  standing  pillar,  and  is  often  similar  to  the 
vertical  curve  of  the  back  of  the  body,  and  the  lines  of  the  driving 
seat.  The  toe  of  the  front  standing  pillar  is  often  exaggerated, 
and  even  brought  out  into  an  extravagant  sweep  across  the  rocker 
side  beneath  the  driving  seat.  This  is  not  only  inartistic,  but  is 
expensive  both  to  construct,  paint,  and  keep  in  repair. 

Not  only  should  the  amount  of  moulding  be  restrained  and 
used  chiefly  as  a  means  to  express  the  main  lines  of  economical 
construction,  but  it  must  be  carried  out  by  an  able  freehand 
draughtsman,  if  an  artistic  effect  is  to  be  obtained.  A  curve  must 
not  be  broken,  and  where  it  runs  into  a  straight  line,  the  junction 
must  be  easy  and  natural,  therefore  imperceptible.  Theoretically,  the 
horizontal  lines  of  the  body  should  be  parallel  with  the  ground  line 
when  the  body  is  loaded,  and  if  there  is  any  slight  dip,  when  the 
body  is  mounted  on  the  chassis,  it  should  be  towards  the  front. 
The  vertical  lines  of  the  pillar  outlines  will  be  at  right  angles  to 
these  lines.  Any  two  portions  of  a  “  straight  ”  line  should  be 
absolutely  in  line,  and  nothing  will  spoil  a  body  more  readily  than 
an  elbow  line  which  drops  or  rises  slightly  immediately  it  leaves  the 
doorway. 

Most  builders  construct  their  bodies  square  above  the  elbow 
line ;  some  firms  throw  out  the  body  slightly  at  the  top,  so  that  the 
end  view  in  the  latter  instance  has  no  tendency  to  look  falling  in  at 
the  top. 

Panel  and  Window  Areas. — Apart  from  the  mere  outline  of  the 
body,  we  have  the  surface  broken  up  into  panel  and  window  areas. 
In  a  limousine  the  side  lights  are  an  important  item  in  the 
design,  and  the  hind  standing  pillar  has  a  run  formed  in  it  in 
which  the  light  may  slide.  On  the  other  side  of  the  light  a 


BODY  DESIGN  (PHAETONS)  15 

pillar  is  framed  in  specially  to  carry  the  light.  The  upper  part  of 
the  door  is  always  given  up  to  a  light ;  generally  the  whole  of  the 
front  of  the  body,  and  a  good  portion  of  the  upper  back  panel  is 
glazed  also.  The  lights  of  a  body,  with  the  exception  of  the  hind 
light,  are  usually  relieved  all  round  by  means  of  a  wasting  formed 
out  of  the  surrounding  framework.  If  the  light  is  fixed  there  is 
often  a  returning  fillet,  or  bead,  as  in  a  back  light. 

Although  a  window  allows  light  and  air  to  enter  the  body  am 
relieves  the  panel  surfaces,  yet  in  designing  a  body  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  plate  glass  is  generally  heavier  than  a  corresponding 
panel  surface,  and  also  weaker. 

Turnunder.— In  order  to  add  to  the  artistic  effect  and  economize 
material  and  weight,  a  body  is  contracted  in  width  below  the  elbow 
generally  by  a  curved  line  following  the  various  forms  described  at 
the  beginning  of  Chapter  I.  As  the  width  on  the  seat  is  always 
more  than  the  width  of  the  chassis,  some  turnunder  is  necessary 
unless  the  bottom  is  to  overhang  the  side  of  the  chassis  unduly,  but 
it  must  be  admitted  that  there  is  not  sufficient  understanding 
between  the  carriage  builder  and  motor  manufacturer  as  to  what 
constitutes  minimum  width,  for  many  bodies  54  ms.  wide  are 
mounted  on  a  36-in.  chassis.  If  there  is  a  wide  seat,  m  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  hind  wheel,  turnunder  is  essential,  in 
order  to  clear  the  tyre,  and  because  a  drop  light  is  running  m  t  e 
framework  adjacent  to  the  seat,  a  great  thickness  of  pillar  is 
necessary.  Five  and  6  ins.  turnunder  is  not  unusual  m  a  motor 
body,  but  If  ins.  was  considered  normal  in  a  horse  broug  am 
built  by  the  leading  London  houses.  What  is  the  use  of  giving 
a  comfortable  seat  if  one’s  feet  have  to  be  kept  together  owing  to 
want  of  width  on  the  floor  ?  Many  a  body  is  spoilt  m  this  way 
because  motorists  will  not  be  content  with  a  normal  seating  for  two 
on  the  back  seat,  say,  44  ins.  between  the  standing  pillars,  and  le 
motor  manufacturers  will  not  increase  the  width  of  their  chassis 
beyond  37  ins.  Moderate  turnunder  given  to  a  body  enhances  the 
appearance  by  the  amount  of  reflection  given  to  the  panel  surfaces 
when  well  varnished;  maximum  turnunder  gives  a  distoitecl 

aPPSidenNwecp.— The  exterior  curved  shape  of  the  body  in  plan  is 
the  side  sweep.  It  enriches  the  appearance  and  is  economical  from 


i6 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


a  constructional  point  of  view,  and  has  been  put  to  better  uses  than 
turnunder.  The  contraction  of  a  body  towards  the  back  is  allow¬ 
able,  as  one  does  not  require  so  much  room  at  the  back  of  a  seat  as 
at  the  front.  In  a  landaulette  a  lesser  width  is  necessary  in  order 
that  the  pillar  tops  may  fall  outside  the  elbow  and  rest  on  the  body 
props.  The  body  may  be  again  narrowed  at  the  front,  behind  the 
driving  seat,  because  the  width  is  not  wanted,  although  with  luxurious 
folding  seats  so  often  fitted  to  the  front  lining  boards,  this  does  not 
always  apply.  If  we  carry  a  regular  sweep  right  from  back  to  front, 
that  is  from  corner  pillar  to  dashboard,  the  effect  is  simplified,  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  we  get  more  width  at  the  back  of  the  driving 
seat  than  is  required,  and  unnecessary  width  generally  means 
unnecessary  weight,  unless  the  disadvantage  is  compromised  by 
using  it  to  give  increased  locker  space  below.  In  a  long  body,  with 
extra  seats  facing  forwards,  the  side  sweep  must  be  well  under 
control,  as  there  will  be  a  comparatively  long  surface  in  which 
about  the  same  width  must  be  maintained,  therefore  the  sweep 
here  should  be  almost  flat. 

In  a  well-designed  body  all  absolutely  flat  surfaces  should  be 
eliminated  as  far  as  possible,  and  even  the  back  panel  should  have 
the  framework  dressed  off  so  as  to  leave  a  slight  fulness  (say  l3g  in-) 
in  the  middle. 

Given  the  turnunder  and  side  sweep,  the  draughtsman  is  able 
to  work  out  the  width  of  the  body  at  any  part. 

Bound  Corners . — The  side  sweep,  in  limousines  and  phaetons, 
has  generally  to  be  associated  with  a  rounded  corner  to  the  hind 
seats,  and  the  front  seats,  if  of  the  bucket  pattern.  The  corner 
will  be  of  about  9  ins.  radius  if  we  desire  to  give  a  comfortable  rest 
for  the  shoulders  right  in  the  corner,  while  care  must  be  taken  with 
the  smaller  curve  at  the  seat  line  in  order  that  the  turnunder  shall 
not  be  marred.  Small  rounded  corners  are  often  used  simply  to 
take  off  an  otherwise  sharp  edge,  and  lighten  the  apparent  bulkiness 
of  the  body.  These  corners  are  often  got  out  in  the  solid,  and  it 
can  be  arranged  so  that  a  specially  shaped  head  is  not  required,  if  a 
landaulette  top  is  used.  Rounded  hind  corners  to  the  leather  heads 
of  landaulettes,  cabriolets,  and  phaetons,  however  well  they  may 
look  when  new,  soon  become  shabby  in  appearance,  as  the  leather 
cannot  be  properly  stretched. 


BODY  DESIGN  (PHAETONS) 


l7 


Roof  Sweep. — The  roof  of  a  closed  body  is  swept  from  side  to 
side  so  as  to  throw  off  the  water.  It  also  is  more  artistic,  and  is 
a  stronger  structure  for  carrying  luggage.  Too  much  sweep  is 
unsightly,  generally  produces  a  drumming  noise  inside  the  body, 
and  if  luggage  is  carried,  throws  it  on  the  luggage  rail  at  the  side. 
A  roof  swept  from  back  to  front  is  sometimes  seen,  and  the  less 
height  at  back  and  front  is  not  objectionable,  as  these  are  positions 
in  which  the  full  headroom  is  not  required. 

Recessing . — By  fixing  the  rocker  sides  on  to  the  inside  of  the 
framing  at  the  seat  line,  a  recess  is  formed.  This  helps  the 
designer  to  narrow  the  body  on  the  bottom  so  as  to  bring  it  nearer 
to  the  width  of  the  chassis.  As  indicated  with  turnunder,  this 
generally  means  that  the  feet  are  cramped  when  the  seats  are 
fully  occupied,  and  one  sometimes  sees  a  rocker  side  specially  built 
out  to  give  more  foot  room  just  where;it  is  wanted.  The  flush-sided 
body  tends  to  do  away  with  this  grievance.  A  recess,  although  it 
relieves  the  monotony  of  one  level  of  panel  surface,  is  considered  a 
dust-raising  factor  on  the  usual  macadamized  road.  Recess  is 
at  its  best  when  the  thickness  of  one  panel  is  allowed  to  overlap 
an  adjacent  one  as  the  top  quarter  of  a  brougham,  or  the  manner 
in  which  the  panels  themselves  are  recessed  from  the  mouldings. 
A  recess  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch  can  hardly  be  considered  a  serious  dust 
raiser,  but  when  it  is  increased  to  6  ins.  and  7  ins.,  as  at  the  standing 
pillars  of  a  large  limousine  landaulette,  it  can  be  readily  understood 
that  here  is  a  chance  for  temporary  vacuums  to  be  created,  as  the 
car  rushes  along. 

Various  Points  in  the  Design  of  Leading  Body 

Types 

Two-seatecl  Cars. — Having  ample  wheelbase  with  relation  to 
the  position  of  the  seats,  it  can  generally  be  arranged  that  a  22-in. 
seat  is  allowed  for,  which  is  well  in  front  of  the  hind  axle.  When 
the  tank  is  on  the  dashboard,  the  motor  body  builder  is  left  entirely 
free  as  to  locker  space,  while  a  tank  slung  behind  the  driving  seat 
is  an  eyesore,  although  this  may  be  compromised  by  putting  it 
between  the  squabbing  and  the  back  panel.  When  there  is  some 
28  ins.  from  the  dashboard  to  the  front  of  the  driving  seat,  there 


1 8  MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 

is  ample  room  for  the  forward  tank  position,  which  is  not  only 
accessible  and  readable  as  to  quantity  contained,  but  it  means  less 
piping  and  greater  efficiency  at  the  carburettor.  The  hind  locker 
space  may  take  upon  itself  many  shapes ;  the  best  plan  is  a  gentle 
slope  towards  the  rear  for  the  top  of  it,  the  end  either  slightly 
curved  or  straight,  in  which  case  it  must  be  slightly  out  of  the 
perpendicular  on  either  side  of  the  vertical  line.  The  sides  of  the 
back  portion  may  be  a  continuation  of  the  rocker  sides  beneath 
the  seat,  or,  if  a  full-panelled  body,  they  will  be  fixed  to  the  inside 
of  the  framing.  The  sides  may  also  be  swept  back  to  a  point  and 
small  corner  platforms  made.  This  reduces  dust  raising,  but  the 


Fig.  3, — Two-seated  or  Single  Phaeton,  with  tool  box  at  rear. 


body  is  not  so  useful.  All  types  of  bodies  should  slightly  overhang 
the  chassis  not  less  than  J  in.,  so  that  the  edge  of  the  chassis  is  hid. 

The  lid  to  the  large  hind  locker  should  open  from  the  top,  and 
be  hinged  from  the  front  if  a  single  lid.  The  locker  itself  can  often 
be  usefully  divided  so  that  tools  do  not  stray  about  and  rattle.  The 
objection  to  using  separate  bucket  seats  is  that  a  recess  is  formed 
at  the  back  which  is  difficult  to  keep  clean.  A  single  seat  with  a 
division  is  the  best  practice.  Long  side  steps  are  hardly  necessary 
unless  one  is  used  in  order  to  contain  a  circular  recess  for  the 
carrying  of  a  spare  wheel,  or  a  battery  box.  With  the  use  of  piopei 


BODY  DESIGN  (PHAETONS)  19 

doors  to  the  front  seat,  a  different  type  of  finish  to  the  dashboard 
has  sprung  up,  which  is  rounded  similar  to  the  pattern  first  used 
some  years  ago  by  the  Daimler  Co.,  so  that  a  neat  corner  is 
made  in  front  each  side  of  the  body,  and  this  structure  is  generally 
framed  to  the  usual  straight  dashboard.  This  scuttle  dash,  as  it 
is  termed,  may  also  be  extended  back  towards  the  driving  seat,  and 
if  this  is  carried  beyond  a  certain  point  it  impedes  the  gangway 
and  has  to  he  made  to  hinge  with  the  door.  The  hingeing  may 
be  by  hand,  or  automatic  with  the  opening  of  the  door. 

When  the  top  of  the  back  portion  is  used  for  carrying  luggage, 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  fit  a  low  luggage  rail  furnished  with  strap  staples, 
while  the  top  itself  has  a  few  neat  transverse  battens  screwed  to  it, 
which  is  a  better  method  than  covering  with  sheet  rubber.  The 
luggage  rail  should  be  rigid  and  not  to  fold  down  when  not  in  use. 
The  hood  fitted  to  a  two-seater  may  be  of  leather,  or  a  light  cape 
cart  hood  covered  with  waterproof  twill.  The  enamelled  leather 
hood,  although  it  costs  double  that  of  the  other  material,  gives  the 
car  a  more  dignified  appearance,  and  wears  considerably  better  than 
a  cape  hood,  a  matter  which  should  be  borne  in  mind  by  the 
professional  man  who  uses  a  two-seated  car.  A  car  which  has  a 
panelled  or  protected  top  furnished  with  lights,  especially  if  the 
side  ones  are  made  to  drop,  is  a  design  which  will  appeal  to  many, 
as  the  car  will  always  look  smart,  and  there  is  an  absence  of  com¬ 
plicated  parts,  which  may  rattle  when  worn.  The  hood,  whatever 
it  be  made  of,  should  lie  as  flat  as  possible  when  down,  so  that  the 
car  may  be  driven  backwards  with  comparative  ease,  it  also  gives 
the  car  a  neater  appearance,  but  the  use  of  the  hood  as  a  dust  screen 
is  lessened,  and  one  must  choose  between  these  uses  of  the  folded 
hood.  The  design  of  hoods  for  both  large  and  small  cars  is  dealt 
with  in  the  chapter  on  weather  protection.  In  deciding  the  width 
of  the  front  seat,  the  centre  of  the  steering  wheel  and  column  should 
be  the  centre  of  the  chauffeur’s  seat,  so  that  he  is  comfortably  seated 
with  both  arms  properly  supported  at  each  side,  and  sitting  squarely 
to  his  work.  Those  who  delight  in  wide  seats  must  use  the  extra 
portion  on  the  driving  side  as  a  small  glove  locker.  We  occasionally 
find  three  on  the  front  seat,  but  unless  the  steering  has  been 
specially  adapted,  it  must  lead  to  uncomfortable  driving  with  little 
room  for  the  legs  and  feet. 


20 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


Racing  Types  of  Two-seaters. — Although  road  racing  is  dying  out, 
there  are  motorists  of  moderate  means  who  delight  in  chassis  with 
small  engines  under  long  bonnets,  and  an  exaggerated  raked  steer¬ 
ing  column.  The  very  low  driving  seat  of  minimum  wind  resist¬ 
ance  which  is  usually  provided  does  away  with  any  useful  locker 
space  beneath  it,  and  means  a  long  and  therefore  rather  cum¬ 
bersome  side  and  dashboard  protection,  while  it  is  very  question¬ 
able  whether  the  recumbent  driving  position  is  really  comfortable, 
however  thickly  the  base  of  the  back  squab  may  be  trimmed,  or 
lends  itself  to  enjoying  the  view  around.  Another  freak-type  of 
two-seated  car  is  that  consisting  of  a  chassis  of  some  60  h.p.,  and 
long  and  strong  enough  to  carry  a  seven-seated  limousine.  The 
mounting  of  a  two-seated  body  on  such  a  chassis  means  that  the 
weight  of  the  body  and  load  is  not  sufficient  to  deflect  the  springs 
properly,  especially  the  hind  ones,  so  that  the  body  bounces  when 
it  is  driven  rapidly,  although  shock  absorbers  may  minimize  this  evil. 

The  Commercial  Traveller’s  Two-seater.  —  The  commercial 
traveller  often  finds  a  two-seated  car  of  great  utility,  in  which  case 
the  front  seats  will  be  the  same  as  for  private  use,  only  the  box 
portion  at  the  rear  should  be  built  up  higher,  almost  to  the  level 
of  the  top  of  the  seats,  so  as  to  carry  a  good  collection  of  samples. 
There  is  no  objection  to  this  high  box  portion  being  removable  and 
a  lower  one  used  when  the  car  is  not  being  used  for  business 
purposes.  An  ordinary  two-seater  is  made  more  serviceable  for 
station  work  if  the  hind  locker  is  removable,  and  a  flat  platform  built 
on  top  of  the  chassis,  as  this  is  safer  and  better  adapted  for  carrying 
one  or  two  heavy  trunks  than  the  sloping  lid  of  a  tool  box. 

In  designing  a  two-seated  body,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the 
small-powered  chassis  will  only  be  sprung  to  carry  a  limited 
amount  of  body  work,  so  that  normal  dimensions  and  locker 
capacity  either  in  or  apart  from  the  body  will  ensure  comfortable 
riding.  A  neat  tool  pocket  may  easily  be  fitted  up  in  the  leather 
trimming  of  the  door,  a  device  which  will  often  do  away  with  the 
necessity  for  a  big  box  and  the  long  step  which  carries  it. 

There  are  between  forty  and  fifty  chassis  models  to  choose  from, 
all  of  which  are  suitable  for  mounting  a  two-seated  body,  and  the 
patriotically  inclined  will  find  about  40  per  cent,  of  these  of  British 
manufacture.  The  small  car  has  risen  to  popularity  since  the  1906 


BODY  DESIGN  (PHAETONS) 


21 


Olympia  show,  and,  if  properly  treated,  provides  the  less  wealthy 
motorist  with  a  car  as  speedy  and  as  efficient  in  hill  climbing 
capacities,  if  not  overloaded,  as  a  large  60  h.p.  seven-seated  car, 
with  the  advantage  of  a  much  less  cost  of  upkeep. 

The  appearance  of  a  two-seater  is  occasionally  spoilt  by  the  use 
of  large  car  lamps.  Very  often  the  cycle  type  will  be  found  in 
keeping,  and  no  accessory  used  should  be  so  large  as  to  be  unduly 
prominent,  and  as  all  the  panel  surfaces  are  small,  moulding  display 
should  be  particularly  restricted. 

Three-seatecl  Cars . — The  extra  seat,  at  the  rear,  may  fold  in 
many  ways.  A  simple  expedient  is  for  the  hip  irons  to  fold  on  to 
the  strapped  cushion  followed  by  the  back  rest,  when  the  whole 
hinges  from  the  front  edge  of  the  seat,  so  that  the  undersurface  of 
the  seat  becomes  part  of  the  top  of  the  locker.  The  whole  seat  may 


also  hinge  forward  bodily  on  the  lazy-tongs  principle.  Such  seats 
do  not  protect  the  occupant  from  dust.  If  a  panelled  seat  be  used, 
it  will  have  to  hinge  inwards  bodily,  although  a  portion,  such  as 
the  back  rest,  can  be  made  detachable  or  to  fold.  A  hind  panelled 
seat  requires  at  least  its  own  depth  in  the  interior  of  the  hind 
part  of  the  body,  for  its  disposal,  and  it  is  also  heavier,  especially 
if  the  sides  and  backs  are  trimmed.  The  simpler  the  folding 
mechanism  the  less  liable  it  is  to  get  out  of  order  and  rattle. 


22 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


Where  room  allows,  the  fixed  type  with  panels  is  the  best.  A  type  of 
body  which  has  yet  to  find  favour  is  a  three-seater  which  has  a 
side  sweep  narrowing  sharply  towards  the  rear  like  the  stem  of  a 
boat. 

The  position  of  the  rear  seat  will  be  as  near  the  driving  seat  as 
possible,  but  allowance  has  to  be  made  for  knee  room,  the  fall  of  the 
head  of  the  driving  seat,  and  also  the  travel  of  the  seat  itself  if  of 
the  folding  type. 

Compactness  of  the  Hincl  Seat. — Instead  of  the  side  of  the  seat 
folding  inside  the  body,  it  may  form,  when  folded,  a  portion  of  the 
side  of  the  body  itself,  but  this  method  does  not  give  so  much  pro¬ 
tection  to  the  feet.  As  the  third  seat  is  considered  an  emergency  one 
only,  its  first  consideration  is  not  always  comfort.  It  should,  however, 
not  be  placed  too  far  behind  the  hind  axle,  and  it  is  better  to  reduce 
the  seating  and  knee  room  to  a  minimum  and  also  mount  the  head 
so  that  it  falls  as  short  as  possible  when  down,  and  bring  the  seat 
as  far  forward  as  the  design  allows.  When  the  body  is  narrowed  at 
the  back,  entrance  between  the  wheel  and  body  can  be  effected, 
otherwise  the  seat  will  have  to  be  gained  by  mounting  the  wheel, 
or  round  it  either  from  the  back  or  front,  whichever  is  the  more 
convenient,  according  to  the  relative  position  of  the  several  parts. 

Compactness  of  the  hind  seating  arrangement  is  also  studied 
with  regard  to  the  height  of  the  seat.  By  keeping  the  seat  as  low 
as  possible,  the  hind  boot  is  kept  within  reasonable  limits,  and  an 
increase  of  comfort  can  easily  be  obtained  by  increasing  the  thick¬ 
ness  of  the  movable  cushion.  It  is  not  advisable  to  make  the  seat 
wide  enough  to  carry  two  persons,  even  if  the  allowance  is  only  for 
children,  as  the  temptation  naturally  follows  to  overload  the  car. 

An  ideal  third  seat  for  a  small  car  should  follow  closely  on  the 
lines  of  the  rumble  to  a  lady’s  driving  phaeton,  where  it  is  often 
admirably  incorporated  in  the  general  design  of  the  vehicle,  and  does 
not  obtrude  on  the  notice,  or  appear  to  be  anything  in  the  nature 
of  an  afterthought. 

Tonneau  Phaetons. — The  old-fashioned  hind-entrance  tonneau  has 
practically  gone  out  of  fashion.  There  is  no  reason  why  those  who 
are  willing  to  put  up  with  the  small  inconvenience  of  a  hind  entrance 
should  not  adopt  them  where  an  extra  passenger  or  two  is  carried 
occasionally,  so  that  the  tonneau  would  be  fulfilling  the  duties  of  a 


BODY  DESIGN  (PHAETONS)  23 


two-seater  with  extra  seat  behind.  The  advantage  to  be  gained  in 
this  old  type  of  body  is  that  the  extra  passengers  would  be  well 
protected  and  comfortably  seated.  The  seats  could  be  arranged  so 
that  if  one  person  was  riding  only  he  could  be  seated  centrally. 
Then  again  the  general  design  could  be  modernized  on  the  lines  of 
a  flush-sided  phaeton  and  built  low  on  the  wheels,  while  less  swell 
could  be  made  in  the  design  of  the  plan  so  as  to  seat  two  comfortably 
across  the  back,  rather  than  three.  The  unoccupied  tonneau  would 


3  Feet 


Fig  5  —Tonneau  Phaeton.  This  has  been  re-designed  on  modern  lines  with  flush 
panels, ’front  doors,  and  a  compact  double  extension  hood.  There  is  a  central  hind 

door  as  well. 


also  make  an  excellent  receptacle  for  light  parcels,  while  the  hind 
springs  would  be  made  strong  enough  to  carry  two  persons,  or  a 
reasonable  amount  of  luggage.  The  door,  with  its  flap  seat,  should 
be  made  at  least  21  ins.  wide.  For  a  body  of  this  description,  see 

Fig.  5. 

Side-entrance  Phaetons.— The  use  to  which  the  hind  portion 
of  the  body  is  to  be  put  is  the  most  important  factor  in  influencing 
the  setting  out  of  the  body.  Two  folding  seats  on  the  front  lining 
boards  will  make  a  more  compact  body  than  extra  seats  facing 
forwards.  A  motorist  should  be  quite  sure  that  he  will  generally  be 
carrying  seven  persons  in  his  car  before  deciding,  because  if  five  is 
to  be  even  more  than  the  average  load,  it  is  a  great  pity  to  spoil 


24  MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 

the  whole  appearance  and  wearing  capacity  simply  for  the  sake 
of  a  couple  of  passengers,  who  may  be  carried  on  some  rare 
occasions.  Even  if  four,  rather  than  five,  will  be  the  maximum 
number,  he  can  have  a  vastly  improved  type  of  body  if  he  has 
courage  enough  to  insist  on  a  four-seated  car,  rather  than  blindly 
follow  fashion,  and  fill  the  car  with  seats  to  its  undoing. 

Flash-sided  Phaetons . — The  most  popular  type  of  side-entrance 
phaeton  to-day  is  the  flush-sided  phaeton  usually  called  a  “  torpedo,” 
which  is,  strictly  speaking,  confined  to  the  bodies  bearing  the 
licence  plate  of  Captain  Masui,  a  variety  of  body  in  which  the 
panels  are  carried  down  from  elbow  to  chassis  without  the  usual 
recess  at  the  seat  line.  The  body  in  plan  may  usually  be  described 
as  “  straight-sided,”  that  is,  the  sides  of  the  body  do  not  swell  out 
merely  to  embrace  the  extra  width  required  by  the  extra  passenger 
in  the  hind  seat.  These  phaetons,  however,  often  accommodate  three 
on  the  back  seat,  so  that  the  body  has  to  be  gradually  increased 
in  width  from  the  back  of  the  driving  seat,  unless  both  levers  are  to 
be  enclosed  in  the  front.  This  type  of  body  gained  popularity  when 
Captain  Masui  registered  his  design  in  1908,  and  the  pattern 
built  by  the  Austin  Company,  called  the  “  vitesse.”  The  latter 
had  a  single  entrance  only,  a  mode  of  entry  which  was  adopted 
by  Mulliner  of  Northampton  at  the  1909  Olympia  show,  only  on  a 
different  principle,  the  near  side  seat  of  the  Austin  car  hingeing 
sideways  towards  the  chauffeur’s  seat,  while  in  the  Mulliner  body  a 
piece  of  the  side  of  the  seat  was  attached  to  the  door  on  each  side. 

Messrs.  Rheims  and  Auscher  (Rothschild)  of  Paris  claimed  to 
have  originated  the  flush-sided  body  in  1899,  when  they  built  M. 
Jenatzy  his  “  Jamais  Contente  ”  car;  a  reader  of  the  Autocar  had  a 
similar  body  built  for  him  in  1902 ;  which  facts  came  to  light  when 
vaiious  gentlemen  each  claimed  to  be  the  true  originators.  The 
idea  of  a  flush-sided  body  was  by  no  means  novel,  even  before  the 
days  of  motor-ears,  for  there  were  plenty  of  full-panelled  coaches 
and  chariots  one  hundred  years  ago,  but  the  particular  modification 
which  is  usually  referred  to  as  a  u  torpedo  ”  body  has  only  been 
before  the  motoring  public  since  1908.  This  type  of  body  has 
received  all  along  the  greatest  amount  of  attention  in  Great  Britain, 
and  it  is  growing  in  favour  in  both  France  and  America,  although 
in  the  latter  country  designers  have  seen  fit  to  scoff  at  it  in  printj 


BODY  DESIGN  (PHAETONS)  25 

but  have  built  them  readily  enough  in  actual  practice,  calling  them 
“  gunboats,”  and  painting  them  a  “  battleship  ”  grey. 

Captain  Masui’s  original  torpedo  body  had  simple  and  neat  lines, 
and  an  absence  of  unnecessary  corners  and  angles.  The  elbow  line 
was  flat  on  top  of  the  doors  and  the  seats  low  and  well  raked.  Part  of 
the  design  consisted  of  the  scuttle  dash,  which  decreased  the  area 
of  glass  necessary  in  the  wind  screen,  besides  protecting  the 
occupants  of  the  front  seat  a  great  deal  and  the  turnunder  was 
of  a  rotund  type. 

These  bodies  are  now  made  by  nearly  every  motor  body  builder, 
Roi  des  Beiges  turnunders  are  often  seen,  and  belt  panels  have 
been  used  in  the  scheme  of  decoration,  while  many  have  detracted 
from  the  principle  of  this  simple  design  by  using  an  elaborate 
display  of  mouldings.  There  are  some  designers  who  seem  to  be 
irritated  by  a  large  unbroken  surface  of  panelling,  and  are  for  ever 
eager  to  “  break  it  up  ”  with  mouldings  running  in  various  directions. 
A  moulding  should  not  be  looked  upon  as  essentially  a  decorative 
device,  but,  as  already  pointed  out,  rather  as  a  means  to  hide  the 
fastening  of  a  panel,  or  to  finish  off  the  edge  of  a  surface.  The 
light  and  shade  provided  by  the  turnunder  and  side  sweep, 
the  difference  in  texture  of  the  panel  and  trimming  surfaces,  are 
quite  sufficient  to  give  a  continual  pleasing  effect,  which  object 
is  never  achieved  by  mere  elaboration. 

A  flush-sided  body  should  average  about  26  ins.  in  height  at  the 
doors,  having  regard  also  to  the  height  of  the  bonnet,  and  the  hind 
seat  should  accommodate  two  persons  and  be  the  same  width  and 
comfort  as  the  front  seat,  that  is  provided  with  a  central  arm  rest. 
This  is  a  plan  of  seating  which  should  apply  in  the  majority  of  side- 
entrance  phaetons.  As  the  hind  corners  of  the  chassis  are  generally 
square,  in  designing  the  hind  panels  it  has  to  be  decided  whether 
the  body  shall  be  made  either  longer  or  wider,  so  that  this  corner  is 
covered,  or  else  design  it  according  to  actual  requirements,  and  in 
keeping  with  the  general  setting  out  of  the  body,  and  leave  a  naked 
corner  on  the  chassis  to  be  boarded  over.  The  Arrol- Johnston 
chassis  is  made  specially  to  surmount  this  difficulty,  being  inswept 
at  the  rear.  A  chassis  which  is  parallel  in  plan,  but  rises  in 
elevation  at  the  rear,  means  that  the  turnunder  must  again  be 
adapted  to  the  chassis,  while  canting  in  of  the  side  members  by  the 


26 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


dashboard  will  require  heavy  framing,  if  the  body  is  to  be  kept  the 
full  width  here  in  order  that  it  shall  be  properly  supported  on 
the  inside. 

The  scuttle  dash  will  take  up  some  6  ins.  or  7  ins.  of  the  front 
gangway,  so  that  the  measurement  from  dashboard  to  front  seat 
is  often  30  ins.,  while  raked  steering  is  provided  so  that  low 
seats  may  be  used  to  help  the  scheme  of  a  body  and  passengers 
offering  the  minimum  of  wind  resistance. 

The  panels  used  are  often  of  steel  or  aluminium  throughout, 
although  wood  can  be  used  quite  as  well,  if  not  to  advantage,  in 
comparatively  flat  places  such  as  the  door  panels. 

The  back  of  the  body  may  be  treated  in  various  ways.  If  the 
motorist  is  an  enthusiast  on  the  subject  of  dust  raising,  he  can 
have  the  back  cut  away  under  the  seat  and  rounded  over  so  that 
the  indrawn  currents  of  air  may  easily  escape,  or  the  rounded 
portion  may  be  extended  backwards  so  as  to  provide  a  locker 
opening  from  the  rear.  Those  who  dislike  the  appearance  of  the 
spare  tyre  or  wheel  attached  to  the  body  can  have  the  lower 
framing  made  wide  enough  so  that  it  is  carried  on  the  floor  at 
the  rear  of  the  body,  a  position  in  which  it  is  much  better  protected . 

The  hind  portion  may  be  made  detachable,  the  point  of  juncture 
being  an  ideal  place  for  a  moulding.  If  the  body  is  running  with 
its  front  pair  of  seats  only,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  ballast  the  hind 
portion,  or  if  possible,  shift  the  spare  wheel,  or  other  heavy 
accessory. 

The  scuttle  dash,  if  well  designed,  will  dispense  with  the  use 
of  rugs  except  in  stormy,  wet  weather,  and  this  useful  device  has 
been  adopted  for  the  hind  seat  protection  as  well.  Of  course  it  has 
to  be  hinged,  and  acts  admirably  when  the  hind  seats  are  kept  well 
forward.  This  type  of  dashboard  is  liable  to  decrease  the  acces¬ 
sibility  of  the  dashboard  fittings,  but  this  is  a  matter  which  can 
easily  be  rectified  by  specially  mounting  the  fittings  well  forward, 
and  chassis  differ  greatly  as  to  the  amount  of  fittings  placed  here. 

Semi- Flush-sided  Phaetons . — Several  phaetons  have  the  flush¬ 
sided  panels  to  the  front  seats  and  doors  only.  An  original  type  of 
body  on  these  line  was  the  “  Torunda,”  by  Messrs.  Hewer,  and  some 
limousines  and  landaulettes  have  been  built  in  this  way.  This 
method  of  design  allows  a  wide  hind  seat  to  be  used  with  comfort, 


BODY  DESIGN  (PHAETONS)  27 

as  thereby  wheel  clearance  may  be  more  easily  allowed  for. 
Another  type  of  “  semi-torpedo  ”  has  a  low  seat  line  throughout, 
being  practically  a  flush-sided  phaeton  with  its  low  seats,  but  with 
a  very  small  recess  under  them. 

The  two  varieties  just  described  may  be  looked  upon  as  quite 
modern  t}rpes.  There  are  also  a  large  number  of  earlier  phaetons 
— designs  which  have  been  evolved  since  the  day  of  the  lengthened 
chassis — which  may  be  divided  into  five  groups  according  to 
whether  the  body  has  a  straight,  rotund,  tulip,  or  Roi  des  Beiges 
turnunder,  while  the  horse-drawn  victoria  phaeton  has  also  been 
adapted  as  a  motor  body  with  various  modifications. 

Straight-backed  Phaetons—  This  is  a  very  simple  method  of 
designing  the  panelling,  and  the  metal  panels  can  be  fitted 
without  beating,  making  a  big  difference  in  the  cost.  The  door 
panels  are  generally  finished  with  a  slight  rotund  turnunder,  the 
portion  above  the  seat  line  following  the  turnunder  of  the  seat 
panels.  If  a  moderate  inclination  is  given  to  the  back  panels, 
the  design  looks  well,  and  certainly  is  to  be  preferred  to  a  badly 
shaped  body  in  which  an  endeavour  has  been  made  to  introduce 
elaborate  sweeps. 

Rotund  Phaetons.— This  variety  of  turnunder,  when  carried  out 
with  moderation,  makes  the  best  style  of  phaeton,  as  the  curve  of 
turnunder  and  side  sweep  can  easily  be  made  to  harmonize,  and 
the  shape  of  panels  is  easily  trimmed  to  form  a  very  comfortable 
back  rest.  With  all  types  of  phaetons,  if  the  hind  part  of  the 
body  is  made  to  accommodate  more  than  one  set  of  seats,  the  side 
panels  must  be  made  deeper  than  those  of  the  driving  seat  in 
order  that  they  shall  look  proportionate.  Two  inches  extra  depth 
will  be  found  quite  sufficient  in  order  to  secure  this  end  even  in 
long  cars. 

The  rotund  turnunder  also  harmonizes  well  with  the  exterior 
outline,  such  as  the  lines  on  the  elbow  and  round  the  door,  and 
being  a  common  practice  with  horse-carriage  design,  there  is  a 

wealth  of  precedent  from  which  to  draw. 

This  type  of  body  is  a  popular  one  to-day.  The  four  doois 
should  be  the  same  height,  and  the  practice  of  adding  a  roll  to  each 
door  rail  is  not  to  be  recommended,  because  it  tempts  passengers  to 
lean  on  the  door,  which  is  sometimes  a  source  of  danger  when  it  is 


28 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


closed  and  also  strains  the  door  when  it  is  open.  The  body,  just 
behind  the  driving  seat,  in  all  types  of  side-entrance  phaetons,  is 
about  the  same  width  as  the  driving  seat,  whether  two  flap  seats  are 
fixed  to  the  front  lining  boards  or  not.  With  a  rounded  corner  to 
the  front  seat,  the  front  standing  pillar  of  the  door  has  to  be  neatly 
fitted  to  it.  Seldom  is  the  body  wide  enough  to  need  any  contract¬ 
ing  panel,  as  will  be  found  in  a  horse-drawn  brougham.  If  a  small 
block  or  filling-up  piece  is  used  between  the  seat  panel  and  standing 
pillar,  this  is  best  fitted  so  that  it  lines  with  the  front  face  of  the 


pillar.  If  it  forms  a  continuation  of  the  side  face  of  the  pillar,  the 
joint,  should  it  show  through  the  paint  after  a  time,  will  be  more 
noticeable  than  if  the  first  method  had  been  adopted. 

The  rotund  type  of  turnunder  lines  well  with  the  back  of  the 
hood.  Carving  such  as  dub  ends  is  falling  into  disuse  on  all  types 
of  bodies. 

The  Victoria  Phaetons. — The  adaptation  of  the  horsed  park 
victoria  as  a  motor  body  took  place  in  the  very  earliest  types  of 
motor  bodies,  and  many  of  the  double  phaetons  with  doors  to  the 
hind  seats  only  were  to  be  continually  seen.  Recent  patterns 
differ  from  these  in  that  there  are  proper  doors  to  both  seats,  and 
the  horsed  victoria  is  also  closely  imitated  when  the  driving  seat  is 
of  a  pattern  with  a  recess  at  the  seat  line.  The  Shrewsbury  phaeton 


BODY  DESIGN  (PHAETONS)  29 


was  an  early  type  with  a  well-balanced  outline,  but  owing  to  the 
wheel  base  of  the  chassis  at  that  time,  it  had  a  swing  front 
entrance. 

The  victoria  phaeton  may  be  regarded  as  a  flush-sided  body,  but 
it  is  not  usually  straight-sided.  Some  modern  flush-sided  bodies  aie 
hardly  distinguishable  from  victoria  phaetons,  the  difference,  if  any, 
being  that  there  is  no  recess  behind  the  driving  seat.  The  victoria 
phaeton  lends  itself  to  many  modifications,  and  several  pleasing 
designs  have  been  evolved.  Sometimes  a  separate  hood  is  fitted  to 
each  seat,  more  often  a  single  leather  hood  is  fitted  to  the  hind  seat, 
with  or  without  an  extension  piece  to  a  glass  screen  behind  the 


T?Tr  7  -Side-entrance  Tulip  Phaeton,  to  seat  three  on  the  hind  seat,  one  on  each 
the  two  single J"facing  Wards,  ’and  two  on  the  driving  seat.  An  unusually 


large  car. 


driving  seat,  or  as  far  forward  as  the  driving  wind  shield,  but  this 

latter  device  is  somewhat  unsightly.  _  _ 

Tulip  Phaetons.— It  is  generally  understood  that  the  original 

type  of  phaeton  built  for  the  late  King  of  the  Belgians  had  a  turn- 
under  consisting  of  a  straight  line  with  a  curve  at  the  top,  although 
the  term  Roi  des  Beiges  is  now  associated  with  a  different  shape,  as 


is  described  below. 

The  tulip  curve,  although  it  can  be  traced  to  the  outline  of  the 
flower  of  that  name,  does  not  at  once  suggest  that  connection.  It 
is  the  simplest  curve  which  can  be  produced  with  a  minimum  of 
panel  beating,  but  it  makes  a  bad  line  with  the  hood  when  up.  It 


3° 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


does  not  make  any  great  headway  in  the  motorist’s  favour  at  the 
present  time,  but  there  is  no  doubt  a  field  for  modified  treatment  of 
this  outline. 

Roi  des  Beiges  Phaetons. — This  has  a  double  sweep  to  the  turn- 
under,  and,  as  it  finishes  the  same  on  the  top  as  the  tulip  curve,  it 
again  forms  a  bad  line  with  the  hood  when  up.  When  the  curve  is 
not  too  pronounced,  the  design  makes  a  luxurious-looking  body. 
Some  five  or  six  years  ago,  the  Roi  cles  Beiges  phaeton  was  very 


Fig.  8. — Side-entrance  Roi  des  Beiges  Phaeton. 

popular,  but  owing  to  its  adoption  as  a  standard  touring  car,  its  use 
has  fallen  off  as  a  car  body  made  to  order,  and  using  the  same 
argument,  some  have  foretold  the  disuse  of  the  single  landaulette 
as  a  private  car,  because  of  the  adoption  of  this  design  as  a 
hackney  carriage. 

Protected  Phaetons. — Although  many  dislike  the  enclosed  nature 
of  the  limousine,  and  at  the  same  time  do  not  care  for  the  openness 
of  the  usual  side-entrance  phaeton,  strange  to  say,  the  go-between, 
namely,  the  protected  phaeton,  or  de'mi-limousine,  is  not  so  popular 
as  it  was  some  four  or  five  years  ago.  Both  the  late  King  and 
George  Y.  when  Prince  of  Wales  had  a  large  body  of  this  type. 

The  body  is  seldom  made  to  carry  four  or  five  persons  only, 
there  being  generally  a  pair  of  extra  single  seats.  The  disadvantages 
accruing  to  this  type  consist  in  the  difficulty  of  protecting  the 


BODY  DESIGN  (PHAETONS)  31 

remaining  portion  of  the  body  during  inclement  weather.  The 
portion  from  hind-seat  protection  to  doorway  can  be  provided  with 
a  window  to  swing  up  into  the  roof,  or  a  curtain  which  either  rolls 
up  or  pulls  aside.  Curtains,  however  well  designed,  are  seldom 
properly  cared  for,  and  soon  look  shabby,  while  the  hinged  light 
is  generally  a  source  of  rattling  ere  long.  The  space  above  the 
doorway,  again,  needs  similar  protection.  Some  limousines  are 


j  Feet. 


Fig.  9.— Protected  Phaeton  with  seating  arrangement,  as  Fig.  7. 

designed  in  which  the  hind  standing  pillar  top  hinges  into  the 
roof,  while  the  side  and  door  lights  drop  into  the  usual  casings. 
Such  a  design  of  body  forms  an  ideal  all-weather  car.  The 
protected  phaeton  type  of  body  will  also  wear  more  satisfactorily 
if  the  upper  hind  portion  is  constructed  on  ordinary  limousine 
lines.  If  any  pronounced  tonneau  shape  has  to  be  built  upon  and 
fitted  to  in  connection  with  a  sharply  curved  elbow,  the  resulting 
contour  means  a  fancy  shaped  piece  of  bent  glass  work,  which  is 
naturally  weak,  and  a  source  of  delay  to  replace.  Although  a  laige 
roof  space  is  provided,  it  should  not  have  a  luggage  rail  running 
to  the  full  extent,  as  the  roof  is  not  supported  at  so  many  points 
and  as  strongly  as  in  a  limousine,  or  other  closed-type  of  body. 

The  many-seated  protected  phaeton  resolves  itself  into  a  char-a- 
banc,  an  instance  where  body  types  overlap  in  design. 


CHAPTER  IV 


BODY  DESIGN  ( LIMOUSINES ,  LAUDAULETTES , 

OTHER  TYPES ) 

Single  'Broughams. — Considering  the  tens  of  thousands  of  horse- 
drawn  broughams,  which  have  been  constantly  used  for  many  years 
by  their  owners  with  little  expense  in  the  matter  of  structural 
repairs,  it  must  naturally  follow  that  this  economical  design  of 
body  fulfils  many  small  requirements  incidental  to  shopping  and 
visiting  in  town.  The  single  brougham  is  the  simplest  type  of 
closed  carriage.  It  has  a  plain  upper  quarter  panel,  there  are  no 
folding  parts  to  work  loose,  it  can  be  built  lightly,  because  all  the 
framing  can  be  set  out  with  little  or  no  waste,  and  the  absence  of 
the  mounting  of  a  fore  or  hind  carriage  does  away  with  any  need 
for  extra  strong  framing  beneath  the  seats,  and  the  presence  of  a 
chassis  does  away  with  a  costly  edge-plate.  With  the  door  lights 
and  front  lights  lowered  to  their  full  extent,  presenting  as  they 
often  do  nearly  12  sq.  ft.  of  space  open  to  the  air,  the  single 
brougham  has  nevertheless  been  considered  stuffy  and  has  by  no 
means  become  r  popular,  except  in  a  few  instances  as  an  electric 
carriage,  and  in  rarer  cases  mounted  on  the  usual  petrol  chassis. 

The  brougham  body  may  be  built  with  a  square  or  rounded 
outline,  or  a  combination  of  these  styles.  For  those  who  desire 
extra  comfort  in  riding,  the  body  (minus  the  driving  seat)  can  be 
slung  on  C  springs.  The  designer  has  no  difficulty  in  producing  a 
good  style  of  body,  as  there  are  many  good  horse-drawn  models 
running  about  daily.  It  will  be  found  that  the  side  sweep  seldom 
exceeds  6  ins.,  and  the  turnunder  of  a  genuine  ‘‘Barker”  is  about 
If  ins.  If  the  body  is  made  3  ft.  8  ins.  on  the  hind  seat  between 
the  standing  pillars,  with  a  24-in.  door  and  a  26-in.  quarter,  a 
roomy  brougham  for  two  will  result,  which,  if  painted  dark  colours, 


BODY  DESIGN  (LIMOUSINES  AND  OTHER  TYPES)  33 


will  make  a  dignified  gentleman’s  carriage  for  town  work.  It  is  a 
type  that  can  easily  be  kept  neat  and  clean  with  a  little  care.  The 
finish  is  enhanced  if  the  usual  long  side  steps  are  substituted 
by  neat  black  step  treads.  Although  the  provision  of  a  light 
folding  head  is  permissible,  as  with  the  driving  seat  of  a  taxicab,  yet 
it  spoils  the  style  of  the  body  if  it  is  added  to  a  brougham,  and  a 
canopy  should  be  used  instead,  but  often  it  can  be  dispensed  with, 
unless  the  car  is  to  be  used  for  station  work. 

Double  Broughams . — The  same  considerations  apply  as  with  a 
single  brougham,  but  the  higher-powered  chassis  required  for  this 
larger  body  means  that  the  owner  must  be  a  wealthy  man  to  keep 
a  large  car  like  this  for  town  work.  The  brougham  is  essentially 
a  town  carriage,  and  naturally  the  man  who  buys  a  large  chassis 
wishes  to  get  the  utmost  use  out  of  it.  Therefore  the  limousine, 
with  its  extra  means  of  ventilation  and  lighting,  or  the  large 
touring  car,  often  does  the  double  duty  of  a  town  and  touring 
carriage. 

Single  Landaulettes. —  The  construction  of  a  landaulette,  of  any 
type,  requires  more  care  and  skill  than  any  phaeton  or  limousine 
body.  The  folding  upper  structure  demands  the  exact  fitting  of 
several  pieces  of  special  ironwork,  while  the  framing  must  be 
particularly  well  seasoned,  so  that  the  various  pillars  and  tops,  rails 
and  slats  will  be  always  the  same  shape  and  size,  therefore  meeting 
properly  every  time  the  head  is  closed. 

The  problems  surrounding  the  single  landaulette  will  be  readily 
appreciated  if  the  several  kinds  of  head  openings  are  described.  The 
head  may  open : — 

(a)  By  cutting  the  hind  standing  pillar  top  above  the  fence, 
and  the  cant  rail  above  the  front  pillar,  the  whole  being  hinged  so 
as  to  fall  towards  the  rear.  This  type  of  opening  necessitates 
“  half  ”  doors,  that  is,  although  there  is  a  drop  light,  the  upper 
parts  of  what  would  be  the  door  pillars  in  a  brougham  are  incor¬ 
porated  with  the  standing  pillars,  although  in  some  instances  the 
extra  portion  of  upper  door  framework  is  made  to  hinge  over  and 
backwards  on  to  the  door  trimming.  The  pillar  top  is  hinged  to  the 
elbow  of  the  body  by  a  pillar  hinge,  which  also  carries  metal  fingers 
to  which  the  slats  which  support  the  head  leather  and  lining  are 
hinged.  To  the  top  of  these  slats  are  notched  the  hoopsticks,  and 

D 


34 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


similar  but  stouter  hoopsticks  are  framed  into  the  cant  rail  above 
the  door.  The  hoopstick  which  is  above  the  top  of  the  hind 
standing  pillar  will  generally  strike  the  shortest  radius  from  the 
pillar  hinge,  and  care  has  to  be  taken  to  design  the  landaulette 
with  sufficient  head  room  so  that  it  does  not  strike  the  back  of  the 
hind  seat  when  it  is  thrown  down.  When  long  quarters  are 
required  the  head  room  is  not  increased  beyond  the  usual  5  ft.  from 
the  floor,  but  the  extra  length  of  quarter  required  can  be  allowed 
for  by  altering  the  position  of  the  pillar  hinge  centre,  while  some¬ 
times  this  hoopstick  is  mounted  on  a  device  which  causes  it  to  travel 
a  little  farther  in  the  required  direction. 


presents  a  minimum  of  complication,  and  is  always  advisable  when 
the  body  is  a  small  one.  With  wide  doors  and  a  longer  cant  rail, 
when  the  latter  is  thrown  back  behind  the  quarter  it  not  only 
juts  out  beyond  the  body  in  an  unsightly  manner,  but  it  strains  the 
framing  of  the  elbows  and  hind  cross  rail  to  a  considerable  extent, 
so  that  it  is  often  cut  and  hinged  in  the  centre  as  mentioned  below. 
The  cant  rail  may  be  cut  either  above  the  front  pillar  top  or  behind 
it,  the  latter  arrangement  meaning  a  shorter  piece  of  hinged  rail, 
although  it  makes  a  less  satisfactory  joint  to  close,  a  waterplate  being 
needed  to  keep  the  wet  out  together  with  a  pair  of  headlocks  to  strain 


BODY  DESIGN  (LIMOUSINES  AND  OTHER  TYPES)  35 


the  joint  home.  With  the  cant  rails  shutting  on  top  of  the  pillars 
all  that  is  needed  is  a  pair  of  spring  catches. 

(b)  By  using  a  similar  device  to  that  just  described,  only  the 
cant  rails  are  cut  in  the  centre  so  as  to  fold  in  two  when  the  head 
is  down  and  foreshorten  it.  This  method  is  commonly  adopted  in 
many  private  landaulettes,  but  the  great  disadvantage  is  the  gap 
presented  with  the  open  head,  which  speedily  soils  the  head  lining, 
and  for  this  reason  the  narrower  the  body  and  the  less  the  rise  to 
the  roof  the  better,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  a  neat  cover  should 
not  be  used  as  with  a  cape  cart  hood. 

(c)  By  using  mechanism  as  described  under  (a)  or  ( b ),  and  with 
the  front  standing  pillar  tops  to  hinge  as  well,  thus  completely  folding 
down  the  upper  structure  of  the  body.  The  front  pillars  usually 
fold  inwards  towards  the  centre  of  the  body,  which  is  always  wide 
enough  so  that  if  the  pillars  are  cut  sufficiently  high  above  the 
fence  there  is  no  fear  of  their  overlapping  one  another  on  the  front 
fence  rail.  The  pillar  tops  seldom  fold  forwards,  as  there  is  not  a 
handy  lamp  iron,  except  in  some  electric  carriages,  to  form  a  bearing 
for  the  pillar  tops  when  down. 

Bodies  which  open  completely  are  often  insisted  on  by  the 
motorist,  who  does  not  realize  that  he  is  asking  for  a  folding 
structure  hinged  not  only  at  the  doors  but  in  eight  places  above  the 
elbow  as  well.  When  the  body  is  wide  the  folding  superstructure 
is  of  considerable  weight,  and  not  always  easily  managed  by  one 
person,  and  should  the  chassis  be  not  absolutely  rigid  it  does  not 
require  to  be  used  very  long  before  the  opening  and  shutting  of  the 
body  becomes  unsatisfactory.  It  is  always  advisable  to  have  at 
least  a  fixed  front,  which  then  is  practically  a  drop  wind  shield, 
furnished  with  strong  supports,  and  it  is  not  worth  while  doing 
away  with  the  3-in.  thickness  of  each  standing  pillar  top,  which  only 
obstructs  the  line  of  vision  to  a  trifling  extent,  in  order  to  produce 
a  body  which  cannot  give  satisfaction  for  long. 

(d)  By  providing  a  pair  of  “  brougham  doors,”  i.e.  doors  reaching 
to  the  cant  rail  as  in  a  brougham,  while  a  separate  pillar  top  carries 
the  folding  head.  This  is  the  best  arrangement,  and  has  been 
adopted  on  all  the  taxicabs  now  built,  but  it  has  not  originated 
with  them,  for  several  “  growlers  ”  were  so  constructed.  There 
being  a  minimum  of  folding  wood  and  iron  work,  it  is  lighter  and 


36 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


more  under  control,  as  well  as  cheaper.  A  pair  of  headlocks  are 
required  to  draw  the  head  home  above  the  door,  and  the  pillar 
hinges  may  be  of  the  simplest  design.  The  adoption  of  this 
excellent  device  in  private  landaulettes  can  only  be  retarded  by 
those  who  do  not  wish  their  cars  to  be  mistaken  for  public  service 
vehicles. 

Landaulettes  are  usually  furnished  with  a  canopy  to  the  driving 
seat.  If  the  front  pillars  are  made  to  fold,  it  will  have  to  be 
supported  on  a  pair  of  separate  hind  stanchions.  When  the  front 
is  fixed,  the  canopy  can  be  either  a  fixture  or  detachable,  with  a 
piece  of  waterplate  over  the  joint.  It  must  be  admitted  that  the 
fitting  of  a  canopy  to  any  type  of  landaulette  spoils  the  effect 
when  the  hood  is  open,  the  carriage  then  giving  the  impression 
of  being  “  all  front.”  Detachable  portions  of  bodies,  after  having  been 
removable  or  refitted  a  few  times,  are  often  allowed  to  permanently 
remain  on  or  off,  and,  in  any  case,  the  owner  cannot  conveniently 
dispense  with  the  detachable  portion  during  a  journey,  neither 
would  he  be  inclined  to  have  it  sent  on  to  him  should  bad  weather 
set  in  during  a  tour. 

Apart  from  the  styles  closely  following  the  outline  of  a  brougham, 
the  single  landaulette  can  be  made  with  deep  full  panels  like  an 
old  chariot,  or  follow  much  after  the  style  of  a  side-entrance  phaeton 
outline.  Round  corners  to  the  head  give  a  light  appearance  to  the 
hind  corner,  but  seldom  wear  well.  The  flush-sided  body  is  also 
being  adopted,  in  some  instances,  for  the  structure  below  the 
elbow. 

Double  Landaulettes. — The  D -fronted  landaulette  is  the  most 
popular,  chiefly  because  of  the  light  appearance  given  by  the  curved 
glasses  and  panels  of  the  front  corners,  while  the  passengers  on  the 
hind  seat  have  a  less  obstructed  view  than  with  a  square  front, 
which  latter  type,  however,  gives  more  accommodation  on  the  front 
seat.  Although  the  view  is  less  obstructed,  objects  are  usually 
distorted  when  seen  through  a  curved  surface  of  glass,  a  fact  which 
should  be  remembered  when  designing  other  lights  and  wind¬ 
screens.  The  front  is  usually  recessed  at  the  seat  lines,  but  some 
builders  have  designed  the  front  panelling  so  that  it  is  brought 
downwards  to  make  a  toe,  as  is  usually  adopted  at  the  bottom  of  a 
front  standing  pillar,  so  that  the  usual  toe  to  the  pillar  is  formed  at 


BODY  DESIGN  (LIMOUSINES  AND  OTHER  TYPES)  37 

the  bottom  of  the  front  light  pillar,  and  not  at  the  front  standing 
pillar. 

With  a  D -front,  the  light  must  be  fixed,  as  the  constructional 
difficulties  to  be  encountered  in  designing  a  drop  light  of  this 
shape  would  not  be  justified  by  any  advantage  accruing.  The 
front,  whatever  its  shape,  is  not  worth  adding  unless  it  is  at  least 
8  ins.  deep,  for  the  space  occupied  by  a  very  small  front  is  better 
incorporated  in  the  width  of  door  and  hind  quarter.  The  square- 
fronted  type  allows  all  the  lights  to  drop,  and  according  to  the 


Fig.  11. — D-fronted  Double  Landaulette.  The  cant  rail  opens  at  A  and  folds 
back  with  the  hind  pillar  top,  as  in  Fig.  10.  The  rest  of  the  superstructure  is 
fixed. 


design  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  body,  so  the  depth  to  which  these 
may  fall  is  decided.  When  all  the  lights  drop,  there  follows,  natur¬ 
ally,  a  temptation  to  drop  all  the  pillars  as  well,  in  which  case  the 
hind  standing  pillars  fold  to  the  rear  with  the  long  cant  rail,  which 
must  be  hinged  in  the  centre,  while  the  front  standing  pillar  tops 
fold  forwards  on  the  front  side-light  fence,  and  the  front  light  pillar 
tops  on  to  the  front  (cross)  fence.  Sometimes  the  front  standing 
pillar  tops  fold  right  inwards  and  downwards  inside  the  body,  and 
the  front  light  pillar  tops  may  fall  on  a  pair  of  lamp  irons. 

The  fixed  front  makes  the  best  job,  and  the  opportunity  is  often 
taken  of  fixing  a  pair  of  pillar  lamps,  thereby  enhancing  the  style 
as  a  carriage. 


38 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


The  double  landaulette,  with  brougham  doors,  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  thought  of  by  many  builders.  The  most  luxuriously 
hung  landaulettes  of  this  type  are  those  turned  out  by  the  New 
Engine  Co.  The  special  design  of  chassis  is  well  adapted  to  carry 
any  type  of  large  body,  allowing,  at  the  same  time,  the  hind  seat  to 
be  completely  forward  of  the  hind  axle. 

Limousine  Landaulettes. — This  important  variety  of  body  first 
appeared,  some  eight  or  nine  years  ago,  as  a  front-entrance  body, 
and  with  the  advent  of  side  entrances,  it  naturally  had  this  con¬ 
venience  added  to  it.  In  designing  the  hind-quarter  panel,  it 
should  be  kept  at  least  14  ins.  deep,  so  as  not  to  appear  dispro¬ 
portionate  and  “  lengthy.”  Above  the  elbow  it  should  be  remembered 
that  in  dividing  up  the  space  available  horizontally,  between  the 


Fig.  12. — Angular  Limousine  Landaulette,  with  two  single  seats  on  the  front 
lining  boards,  as  Fig.  13.  The  cant  rail  opens  at  A,  and  is  hinged  to  the  pillar  top 
G,  as  in  Fig.  10.  The  cant  rail  is  also  hinged  at  B  so  that  it  can  fold  upon  itself, 
as  shown  at  D,  when  the  head  is  down. 


back  of  the  door  and  hind  corner,  although  the  side  light  should 
not  be  larger  than  the  door  light,  the  balance  of  size  should  be  on 
the  side  of  the  light  rather  than  the  leather  quarter,  as  the  smaller 
this  is  the  lighter  and  easier  it  is  to  fold.  The  drop  side  light,  as 
in  a  limousine,  seldom  falls  further  than  the  top  of  the  side  framing 
of  the  seat  line. 

Limousine  landaulettes  are  built  occasionally  with  all  the  pillar 


BODY  DESIGN  (LIMOUSINES  AND  OTHER  TYPES)  39 

tops  to  fold  down,  the  side  light  pillar  falling  towards  the  rear  on 
the  side  light  fence,  the  front  pillar  tops  across  the  front  fence, 
and  the  rest  of  the  heavy  superstructure  towards  the  rear,  with  the 
cant  rails  folding  in  the  centre,  and  part  of  the  roof  may  hinge 
also  on  to  the  canopy  as  is  mentioned  later  under  limousines.  The 
limousine  style  of  side  light  is  closely  copied  in  some  bodies,  the 
hind  bottom  corner  of  the  glass  frame  being  rounded,  and  the  cut 
of  the  pillar  being  adapted  thereto.  The  use  of  a  protected  front  is 
out  of  keeping  with  the  general  design  of  the  vehicle,  and  a  leather 
hood  is  perhaps  the  best  substitute,  lying  flat  against  the  front 
when  not  in  use.  The  luggage  space  of  the  canopy  should  not  be 
extended  over  the  doorway  even  if  the  canopy  is  a  fixture,  as  this 
throws  an  unnecessary  strain  and  weight  on  the  body  at  a  weak 

point.  , 

The  fence  rails  are  often  framed,  and  the  old  solid  style 

formed  with  “  steps  ”  is  seldom  seen.  The  fence  rail  should  be 
not  less  than  5£  ins.  deep  overall,  otherwise  it  looks  skimpy,  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  this  dimension  has  often  to  be  exceeded  in  order 
to  provide  a  full  drop  for  the  glass  frame ;  but,  again,  if  the  designer 
has  a  fair  amount  of  depth  to  dispose  of,  a  deep  quarter  looks  better 
than  a  deep  fence  rail.  When  the  turnunder  is  large,  some  builders 
have  adopted  the  practice  of  forming  a  small  front  panel  each  side 
of  the  front  light,  so  that  the  drop  for  the  frame  is  easily  arranged, 
the  glass  runs  being  independent  of  the  turnunder. 

When  the  limousine  landaulette  is  used  for  much  touring,  or 
the  top  is  detachable  (which  is  not  recommended),  the  phaeton 
styles  are  often  preferred.  In  all  landaulettes  care  must  be  taken 
to  see  that  the  corner  pillar  is  not  too  upright,  otherwise  the  line 
of  the  head  when  up  will  appear  to  fall  in  at  the  top  and  look 

unsightly. 

Landaus. — Although  this  type  of  body  is  unlikely  to  grow  in 
favour,  more  attempts  might  be  made  to  keep  the  body  as  compact 
as  possible.  There  is  a  greater  sociability  in  sitting  vis-a-vis,  which 
is  a  great  advantage  in  the  wagonette  type  of  seating,  and  if  t  le 
carriage  builder  could  supply  this  type  of  body,  m  an  improve 
form,  his  services  would  be  appreciated  so  long  as  an  abnorma  y 
long  chassis  was  not  required.  From  what  has  been  done  in 
cabriolet  design,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  small  piece  of  front  cant  rail 


40  MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 

should  not  be  made  to  slide  in  the  pillar  top,  while  a  foreshortening 
mechanism  could  be  arranged  for  either  the  front  or  hind  folding 
quarter  to  assist  its  compact  folding,  and  no  attempt  made  to  protect 
the  driving  seat.  The  side-light  landaulette  opens  up  more  possi¬ 
bilities,  as  the  cant  lails  could  be  made  to  fold  on  the  corner  pillar 
tops  laid  on  the  front  fence,  while  the  roof  leather  of  the  front 
quarter  could  roll  up,  and  the  pillar  tops  be  disposed  of  as  mentioned 
under  landaulettes. 

Special  chassis  designed  in  the  direction  of,  say,  18  ins.  instead 
of  26  ms.  between  the  driving  seat  and  the  dashboard  would  help 
matters.  The  great  length  of  a  landau  body  is  not  only  caused 
by  the  presence  of  the  front  quarter,  but  the  space  it  requires  when 
folded  down.  This  necessitates  a  gap  of  nearly  a  foot  between  the 
main  portion  of  the  body  and  the  back  of  the  driving  seat. 

Cabriolets—  The  ideal  carriage,  from  the  motorist’s  point  of 
view,  is  one  which  shall  form,  as  desired,  either  a  completely  open 
or  closed  vehicle. .  From  the  carriage  builders’  practical  standpoint 
there  are  difficulties  to  be  surmounted,  in  order  that  the  necessary 
complication  shall  act  well  under  all  conditions,  while  economy 
and  weight  of  construction  have  to  be  carefully  considered.  The 
landaulette,  in  its  various  styles,  provides  for  a  completely  open 
and  closed  carriage,  but  the  larger  patterns,  when  made  to  com¬ 
pletely  open,  have  a  considerable  weight  of  headwork  which  is 
difficult  to  maintain  in  effectiveness,  especially  when  the  mechanism 
is  continually  operated  by  chauffeurs  and  others  who  do  not  readily 
appreciate  how  the  folded  mechanism  is  put  together  and  is  best 
kept  in  working  order. 

It  is  not  easy  at  first  to  see  what  advantage  the  cabriolet  or 
landaulette  phaeton  has  over  the  ordinary  landaulette,  and  in  some 
instances  it  is  difficult  to  tell  where  any  particular  difference  lies. 
The  long  quarters  which  some  cabriolets  have  are  quite  possible 
on  a  landaulette,  likewise  hind  rounded  corners  and  roof  domed 
like  a  cape  cart  hood ;  in  fact,  one  style  merges  into  the  other  at 
many  points.  The  first  patterns,  which  were  designed  in  France 
some  five  years  ago,  were  practically  side-entrance  phaetons  with 
double  extension  cape  cart  hoods,  having  the  added  advantage  of 
droplights  running  in  wooden  pillar  tops.  The  British  builders, 
in  adopting  this  style,  on  the  whole,  did  away  with  the  side  light, 


BODY  DESIGN  (LIMOUSINES  AND  OTHER  TYPES)  41 


kept  the  same  over-all  length  of  body  by  increasing  the  width  of 
the  door  and  quarter,  and  giving  the  body  ai  double  cabriolet  or  victoria 
outline  rather  than  that  of  an  ordinary  side-entrance  phaeton. 

The  leading  types  of  mechanism  which  have  been  used  up  to 
the  present  are  as  follows : — 

(a)  A  double-extension  cape  cart  hood  folding  down  in  the  usual 
way  from  the  hind  centres  with  drop  light  behind  the  driver’s  seat, 
and  a  drop  or  detachable  light  in  the  doors.  The  front  pillar  tops 
fold  inwards  on  to  the  front  fence.  This  is  the  lightest  form  of  hood 
in  use,  and  the  front  stick  of  the  back  portion  is  kept  perpendicular, 
so  that  it  fulfils  the  duty  of  a  pillar  top. 

(b)  An  ordinary  landaulette  mechanism  is  used.  If  the  quarter 
is  long,  the  centre  of  the  pillar  joint  is  thrown  well  down  and  back, 
and  may  have  a  double  hinge,  the  raised  door  light  is  supported 
on  the  usual  carriers,  the  front  light  drops  and  pillar  tops  fall 
over  it. 

(c)  The  use  of  a  leather  canopy  to  the  driving  seat  entails  a 
recess  being  formed  in  the  top  front  rail  of  the  body,  in  which 
the  canopy  with  its  supporting  side  joints  (folding  inwards 
horizontally)  lies  when  not  in  use.  The  front  rail  of  the  canopy 
above  the  wind  screen  is  provided  with  means  for  attaching  it  thereto, 
and  also  to  the  front  top  rail  of  the  body.  The  canopy  may  also 
be  supported  on  slides  working  from  the  inside  of  the  cant  rail. 
The  slides  support  the  leather  work  in  conjunction  with  light  hoop- 
sticks.  The  canopy  in  its  simplest  form  may  be  merely  detachable 
or  to  roll  up,  and  it  has  been  arranged  also  on  the  spring-blind 
principle. 

(d)  Bodies  with  extra  long  quarters  may  have  the  front  stick 
slanted,  as  in  a  victoria,  while  a  loose  flap  covers  the  space  between 
this  slat  and  the  upright  pillar  top.  This  pillar  top  is  hinged  to 
the  stick  and  cant  rail  at  the  top,  and  fastens  at  the  bottom  with 
a  catch  at  the  fence  rail.  Folding  cant  rails  are  utilized  with  wide 
doors  as  in  landaulettes,  and  with  greater  disadvantage  as  the  sweep 
given  to  the  roof  is  more  pronounced.  This  defect  in  earlier  types 
has  now  been  modified  by  hingeing  the  cant  rails  to  fold  inwards 
horizontally. 

(e)  In  order  to  gain  lightness  in  the  doors,  the  device  has  been 
tried  of  hingeing  the  door  lights  to  the  front  light,  so  that  the 


42 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


door  lights  being  folded  on  to  the  front  light,  the  whole  could  drop 
into  the  front  glass-run.  The  extra  weight  is  raised  by  means  of 
a  rack  and  pinion  (a  type  built  by  Messrs.  Salmons). 

(/)  The  fully  enclosed  car,  shown  by  Messrs.  Mulliner  of 
Northampton  at  Olympia  in  1909,  was  a  double  enclosed  car,  in 
which  the  front  doors  opened  from  dashboard  to  the  standing  pillar 
of  the  second  pair  of  doors.  The  larger  doors  revealed  the  driving 
seat,  this  being  necessary  to  avoid  the  use  of  another  vertical  pillar 
which  would  have  to  fold,  besides  meaning  two  lights  instead  of  one, 
and  also  giving  a  less  interrupted  view.  The  other  door  lights 
dropped  in  the  usual  manner,  the  cant  rails  over  the  driving  seat 
hinged  inwards  in  the  centre,  likewise  those  over  the  smaller 
doorway,  which  together  with  the  front  top  rail  of  the  body  and 
usual  hind  pillar  and  slats  all  folded  back  to  the  rear,  while  the 
front  standing  pillar  tops  were  disposed  of  in  the  usual  way,  across 
the  front  fence. 

Among  other  features  which  may  be  noticed  in  the  various 
patterns  of  cabriolet  hoods  are,  that  the  cant  rails  may  slide  down 
the  pillar  tops  so  as  to  foreshorten  the  open  head,  also  that  the 
front  light  may  be  directly  hinged  to  the  front  top  rail,  while  the 
canopy  may  be  supported  on  a  small  folding  metal  framework  instead 
of  head  joints,  or  if  the  canopy  be  detachable,  it  may  be  sewn  to 
a  light  set  of  slats  so  that  it  shall  keep  its  shape  when  in  use. 

The  door  lights  of  most  cabriolets  are  short,  which  is  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  head  leather  is  brought  well  down  to  a  com¬ 
paratively  low  cant  rail,  and  the  fence  is  kept  high.  Short  lights 
are  usually  necessary  if  they  are  to  drop  their  full  depth  owing  to 
the  turnunder  of  the  door. 

In  an  early  French  pattern  a  hood  to  the  front  seat  first  collapsed 
on  the  face  of  the  front  pillars,  these  latter  lifting  over  and  falling 
from  a  hind  centre,  as  in  a  cape  cart  hood.  Another  style  had  the 
pillar  tops  to  fold  on  the  front  fence,  the  door  cant  rails  to  hinge 
inwards  and  falling  back  with  the  hind  standing  and  light  pillar 
tops,  the  central  hood  supports  being  of  metal  to  ensure  compactness 
and  working  on  the  lazy  tongs  principle.  It  is  curious  to  note  that 
the  caleche  of  1870  had  much  of  the  cabriolet  principle  of  head  work. 

The  latest  type  of  cabriolets  are  built  much  on  the  lines  of  a 
flush-sided  phaeton,  and  the  head  mechanism  tends  to  be  simpler. 


BODY  DESIGN  (LIMOUSINES  AND  OTHER  TYPES)  43 

It  has  been  found  that  by  raising  the  hinge  centre  which  is  neces¬ 
sary  at  the  cant  rail,  a  device  can  be  obtained  which  allows  the 
cant  rail  to  automatically  throw  back  without  being  reversed  or 
folded.  Much  compactness  is  obtained  in  this  way,  and  there  is 
no  need  for  any  sliding  parts.  Simplification  is  obtained  by  having 
one  side  entrance  instead  of  two  and  making  a  pillar  top  wholly 
detachable  instead  of  hingeing  it. 

Limousines.— This  popular  type  of  closed  carriage  may  be  con¬ 
structed  in  various  styles,  from  the  small  con pe  limousine,  just 
holding  two  in  the  body,  up  to  the  large  seven-seated  car  replete 
with  every  travelling  convenience.  The  side  light  is  a  leading 
feature  in  this  body.  It  generally  drops  in  one  piece,  the  practice 


Fig.  13. — Limousine  with  two  single  seats,  A,  screwed  to  the  front  lining  boards. 
B  is  a  folding  step  to  the  roof,  and  C  the  ascending  handle. 


of  dividing  it  into  two  portions  being  seldom  adopted  now.  This 
light  generally  starts  immediately  behind  the  standing  pillar,  and 
is  designed  to  leave  sufficient  upper  panelling  just  to  cover  the  face, 
when  sitting  well  back.  The  back  light  is  generally  a  large  fixed 
one,  and  is  seldom  used  merely  to  break  up  the  surface  of  the  hind 
panelling.  The  plan  has  been  tried  of  designing  the  side  windows 
so  that  a  look-out  arrangement  is  provided  as  with  the  observation 
window  of  a  railway  guard’s  van. 

In  designing  the  light,  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  back 
line  slightly  out  of  the  perpendicular,  and  leaning  towards  the 


44 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


throw-out  of  the  back  panel.  The  top  line  of  the  light  follows 
that  of  the  door  top  merely  for  the  sake  of  symmetry.  The 
side  light  seldom  drops  its  full  depth,  and  is  allowed  to  rest  on 
the  framing  at  the  seat  line.  By  providing  a  ventilating  rail, 
a  good  deep  panel,  and  a  special  wooden  pocket  below  the  seat, 
the  light  can  be  dropped  its  full  depth. 

In  a  limousine,  one  sometimes  sees  a  clerestory  roof  adopted, 
which  helps  the  vitiated  air  to  escape  more  readily.  The  body 
is  seldom  constructed  without  a  canopy,  except  in  the  smallest 
sizes.  As  the  usual  sweep  of  the  cant  rail  narrows  towards  the 
front,  it  is  necessary  for  the  outside  line  of  the  canopy  to  sweep 
out  again  in  order  to  give  proper  protection  to  the  driving  seat 
and  be  of  sufficient  width  to  take  the  flaps  of  the  front  stanchions, 
which  should  embrace  a  wind  shield  at  least  the  width  of  the 
driving  seat  on  its  front  edge.  The  luggage  rail  should  be  restricted 
to  the  canopy  or  placed  centrally  on  the  roof,  as  this  distributes 
the  weight  better,  besides  the  necessary  handles  and  ascending 
treads  can  be  more  conveniently  fitted  here.  The  luggage  rail 
itself  should  be  neat  and  not  more  than  6  ins.  high,  while  fancy 
scroll  ends  should  be  used  with  moderation.  The  driving  seat 
should  always  butt  up  to  the  main  portion  of  the  body,  so  that 
no  difficult  surface  to  clean  is  presented ;  if  separated  it  must 
be  hinged  on  the  front  edge.  A  style  of  decoration  often  seen 
consists  of  the  use  of  a  narrow  vertical  panel  at  each  hind  corner. 

The  limousine  has  been  made  to  convert  into  a  partly  open 
carriage  by  various  means.  In  the  Gamage-Bell  cab  the  cant 
rail  is  cut  in  the  centre  over  the  side  light,  and  the  corner  pillar 
is  hinged  above  the  elbow  so  that  these  members  of  the  framework, 
together  with  portions  of  the  roof  and  back  panel,  can  hinge 
down  and  backwards,  while  a  stop  hinge  assisted  with  a  quadrant 
each  side  prevents  the  folded  headwork  from  going  back  too  far. 
Another  method  is  to  fold  a  portion  of  the  roof  forward  on  to 
the  canopy,  while  Mulliner  of  Northampton  showed  a  body  at  an 
Olympia  show  where  the  roof  folded  over  twice  on  to  the  remain¬ 
ing  roof  portion  at  the  rear.  A  simpler  plan,  which  gives  adequate 
ventilation,  consists  in  hingeing  up  into  the  roof  the  hind  standing 
pillar  top. 

The  limousine  gives  great  scope  for  the  provision  of  luxurious 


BODY  DESIGN  (LIMOUSINES  AND  OTHER  TYPES)  45 

interiors,  and  a  D-front  may  be  added  to  the  design,  simply  to 
introduce  special  cabinet  work. 

The  use  of  a  protected  front  to  the  driving  seat  has  been 
growing  in  favour  of  late.  It  should  be  framed  as  lightly  as 
possible,  so  that  the  general  design  has  nothing  of  the  railway 
carriage  about  it,  and  a  good  plan  is  to  use  a  metal  curved  front 
stile,  while  the  elbow  should  be  no  heavier  than  such  dimensions 
as  will  easily  take  a  rebate  for  the  glass.  The  protected  front, 
besides  giving  a  finish  to  the  body,  provides  another  support  to 
a  luggage-carrying  roof. 

Detachable  tops  are  fitted,  in  a  few  instances,  to  limousines, 
but  they  do  not  grow  in  favour  to  any  extent.  Careful  fitting  is 
necessary,  and  a  phaeton  outline  must  be  given  to  the  lower  part, 
in  order  that  it  shall  look  well  when  used  as  an  open  carriage. 
The  use  of  a  straight  ledge,  on  which  to  fit  the  upper  part  of 
the  body,  has  been  advocated,  the  raised  back  to  the  hind  seat 
being  recessed  sufficiently  to  allow  for  the  thickness  of  the  top 
panelling  and  framing.  A  detachable  top  requires  staples  fixed 
in  the  roof,  properly  arranged,  so  that  the  body  when  lifted  does 
not  tilt  appreciably  in  any  direction,  a  point  to  be  considered  if 
the  motor  house  is  small.  A  simple  plan  shape  is  advisable,  if 
a  satisfactorily  working  top  is  to  be  made.  Drop  windows  com¬ 
plicate  matters,  and  should  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible,  the 
hingeing  window  being  the  best  compromise.  Loose  rolls  to  the 
elbows  and  back  squab  can  be  fitted,  which  add  to  the  comfort 
of  the  body  and  may  also  hide  the  glass  runs  in  the  lower  part. 
The  body  on  no  account  should  have  the  top  fitted  to  conceal 
overhanging  rolls. 

A  cape  hood  may  be  mounted  to  take  the  place  of  the  solid 
top,  the  body  props  for  this  purpose  being  made  detachable. 

The  detachable  top  has  little  to  commend  it,  as  it  means  a 
heavier  and  more  complex  structure,  with  the  main  disadvantage 
that  windows  cannot  be  arranged  so  simply,  while  the  doors  have 
to  be  made  in  two  portions. 

One  may  often  see  a  four-seated  body  with  a  full-panelled 
driving  seat,  while  the  hind  seat  is  recessed  at  the  seat  line. 
This  style  tends  to  direct  the  attention  chiefly  to  the  front  of 
the  body  and  make  it  appear  heavier  and  more  important.  More 


46 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


symmetry  is  gained  by  either  having  all  full  panels,  or  restricting 
them  to  the  rear.  This  point  of  view  is  of  some  importance,  as 
the  owner  seldom  drives  a  limousine. 

Single  Enclosed  Cars. — When  the  engine  is  of  small  horse¬ 
power  the  superstructure  should  be  as  light  as  possible,  so  that  one 
often  sees  light  cape  hoods,  instead  of  heavy  leather  ones,  and  drop- 
lights  dispensed  with  as  far  as  possible,  so  that  the  lower  framing 
may  be  of  minimum  dimensions.  The  two-seated  car  with  a  solid  top 
is  sometimes  called  a  “  sedan  chair  ”  body,  as  the  seating  arrange¬ 
ment  calls  up  that  old-fashioned  mode  of  travel.  The  front  wind 
shield  has  the  advantage  of  the  strong  front  framing  of  the  body  to 


Fig.  14. — Single  Enclosed  Car,  with  tool  box  at  rear.  The  side  light  is  shown 

down  to  its  fullest  extent. 


support  it;  it  is  usually  mounted  on  a  curved  dashboard,  and  it 
is  seldom  possible  to  fit  any  form  of  drop  light.  A  larger  type  of 
body  has  a  gangway  at  the  side  of  the  driving  seat  leading  to  a 
comfortable  seat  for  two  at  the  rear.  This  double-seated  single 
entrance  arrangement  requires  a  longer  and  more  powerful  chassis, 
and  is  gaining  somewhat  in  favour  owing  to  the  sociability  it  gives 
in  a  self- driving  car. 

In  the  ordinary  two-seater,  with  high  wind  doors,  it  is  not 
obligatory  to  place  the  levers  inside  the  body,  but  when  a  top  is 


BODY  DESIGN  (LIMOUSINES  AND  OTHER  TYPES)  47 

fitted  this  must  be  done — another  factor  which  increases  weight, 
demanding  a  top  as  light  as  possible. 

The  front  wind  shield  should  be  protected  from  the  rain  either 
by  projecting  the  roof  forward  to  form  a  small  canopy,  or  providing 
a  special  calash. 

There  is  ample  opportunity,  in  a  car  of  this  description,  for 
designing  a  graceful  and  well-balanced  little  body.  An  extra  sweep 
to  the  roof  from  end  to  end,  the  top  out-curving  of  the  stand¬ 
ing  and  corner  pillars,  an  easy  flowing  line  from  the  elbow  to  the 
toe  of  the  front  standing  pillar,  and  a  bold  outline  to  the  side  and 
backlights,  can  easily  be  combined,  without  elaboration,  to  give  a 
design  both  stylish  and  pleasing  to  an  artistically  inclined  customer. 

The  landaulette  top  presents  its  own  peculiar  restrictions ;  the 
leather  surfaces  must  on  the  whole  be  as  flat  and  as  simple  as 
possible,  and  the  body  should  not  be  built  so  long  that  cant  rails 
have  to  be  hinged  in  the  centre,  although  this  may  be  advisable  if 
a  folding  dickey  seat  is  used  at  the  rear. 

As  mentioned  under  solid  tops,  the  body  may  have  a  separate 
hind  seat  inside,  when  it  is  not  unusual  to  add  a  side  light  to  the 
design  so  as  to  keep  the  folding  head  small.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
build  up  an  expensive  D -front  above  the  curved  dashboard,  as  the 
wind  screen  is  quite  as  effective  when  supported  on  the  back  edge. 
The  front  pillar  should  be  a  fixture,  in  order  to  provide  a  good 
support  for  the  wind  shield,  but  if  no  top  hinge  is  used,  the  top  half 
of  the  pillars  may  fold  downwards,  allowing  the  top  half  of  the 
screen  to  work  from  a  separate  joint. 

Some  builders  have  mounted  bodies,  having  a  seating  arrange¬ 
ment  which  includes  a  small  seat  on  the  dashboard,  usually  with 
the  seat  back  to  the  doorway,  and  in  order  to  maintain  the  knee- 
room  of  the  near-side  passenger  of  the  main  seat,  it  is  built  back 
about  3  ins.  from  the  front  line  of  the  driving  half  of  the  seat. 
The  space  left  at  the  back  of  this  seat  can  then  be  arranged  as  a 
gravity  petrol  tank. 

Double  Enclosed  Cars.— The  most  luxurious  body  of  to-day  is  the 
car  body  which  has  seating  for  four  to  eight  passengers  with  separate 
doors  to  the  driving  and  hind  seats,  and  sometimes  a  central  door 
or  corridor  arrangement  leading  from  one  part  of  the  body  to  the 
other.  The  various  considerations  mentioned  under  limousines  and 


48  MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 

landaulettes  apply,  and  as  the  chassis  is  taken  for  granted  to  be  of 
ample  power,  the  weight  of  the  body,  which  is  inseparable  from  its 
design,  is  not  seriously  taken  in  account.  The  use  of  a  D -front 
above  the  dashboard  balances  the  rounded  hind  corner,  while  roof 
ventilators  and  louvres  just  below  the  cant  rail  are  often  adopted  to 
further  ventilate  the  body.  The  design  needs  to  be  boldly  treated, 
and  should  be  executed  so  that  the  car  does  not  look  like  two  bodies 


Fig.  15.— Double  Enclosed  Car,  with  two  single  seats  on  the  front  lining  boards 

as  in  Figs.  12  and  13. 


stuck  together.  Owing  to  their  size,  detachable  tops  are  seldom 

fitted,  but  tops  to  lift  off  in  two  separate  portions  have  been 
constructed. 

The  double  enclosed  car  may  be  used  as  a  partly  open  car  by 
constructing  a  folding  hood  at  the  rear,  while  various  pillar  tops 
may  hinge  into  the  roof  in  order  to  give  some  of  the  advantages  of 
an  open  phaeton.  The  disadvantage  from  the  purely  artistic  point 
of  view  is  that  the  body  looks  heavy  in  front  when  the  hood  is 
down.  The  enclosed  car  has  risen  in  favour  since  1907. 

If  agoncttcs ,  Shooting  JBvahcs,  and  Luggage  Cavs . — This  type  of 
body  fulfils  the  requirements  of  the  sporting  dogcart,  and  generally 
has  sufficient  capacity  to  replace  two  of  these  horsed  vehicles.  Its 
seating  plan  follows  that  of  a  horsed  wagonette  break,  with  the 
added  advantage  of  a  much  lower  body. 


BODY  DESIGN  (LIMOUSINES  AND  OTHER  TYPES)  49 

Side  entrances  materially  detract  from  the  usefulness  of  the 
body,  as  the  seats,  if  fitted  to  these  doors,  have  to  be  made  to  fold 
up  separately. 

A  wide  hind  entrance  should  be  adopted,  and  if  luggage  is  often 
to  be  carried,  one  wide  and  one  narrow  door  should  be  hung,  so  as 
to  provide,  say,  a  30-in.  double  door,  through  which  the  luggage 
may  be  easily  passed.  A  wide  bottom  to  the  body  is  not  customary, 
but  it  increases  the  loading  capacity  if  a  wide  chassis  can  be 


Fig.  16. — Shooting  Brake,  Wagonette  or  Luggage  Car,  with  hind  entrance. 


obtained.  Folding  seats  are  now  in  vogue,  so  that  the  body  may  be 
converted  into  a  non-passenger  vehicle,  either  as  a  whole  or  in  part. 
The  locker  space  of  the  body  may  be  increased  by  adding  outside 
boxes  on  the  step,  and  on  a  pair  of  flat  hind  wings,  but  it  would 
certainly  appear  to  be  better  design  to  incorporate  the  required 
space  in  the  body  itself. 

One  is  almost  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  apart  from  various 
models  of  chassis,  from  the  horse-power  point  of  view,  and  various 
means  of  transmission,  there  is  some  scope  for  manufacturers  to 
specialize  on  types  adapted  for  wide  bodies  with  wide  tracks,  if  they 
do  not  find  it  remunerative  to  build  such  patterns  as  one  of  their 
ordinary  models. 

In  designing  the  outline  of  the  body  the  practice  is  to  use 
straight  lines  freely,  so  that  a  workmanlike  style  is  obtained. 


E 


50 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


The  back  panels  may  have  a  moderate  turnunder,  but  it  should  be 
remembered  that  if  the  door  is  to  open  square  every  fraction  of  an 
inch  more  turnunder  means  a  longer  and  stronger  hinge  to  the 
lower  parts,  and  heavier  framing  to  hang  it  to.  The  canopy 
stanchions  should  be  double  socketed  with  a  good  vertical  distance 
between  the  bearings,  so  that  they  are  held  rigidly.  The  body  may 
be  panelled  up  either  to  the  elbow  or  to  the  top  of  the  back  rest, 
which  should  be  normally  22  ins.  from  the  seat  board. 

Lonsdale  Wagonettes. — When  side-entrance  landaulettes  became 
possible  on  petrol  chassis,  this  hind-entrance  type  of  landau 
naturally  fell  into  disuse.  It  is  a  far  more  compact  body  than  a 
four-seated  landau  or  even  single  landaulette,  and  the  style  of  body 
can  be  easily  made  more  artistic,  as  there  is  no  call  for  the  severe 
lines  used  in  a  shooting  brake  or  omnibus.  The  width  of  the  head, 
when  down,  has  to  be  taken  into  consideration,  for  which  reason 
the  half  cant  rails  hinge  inwards  from  the  pillar  top.  The  back 
framing  should  be  well  plated,  as  there  is  a  large  amount  of  weight 
carried  when  the  head  is  down. 

Private  Omnibuses. — As  in  other  wagonette  bodies,  this  type 
carries  its  load  with  the  shortest  possible  length  of  chassis,  and  is 
useful  for  station  work,  in  hilly  districts,  and  in  any  circumstances 
where  a  large  load  has  to  be  carried  economically,  and  convenience 
of  entry  is  not  the  main  consideration.  The  body  may  be  as 
long  as  the  varying  lengths  of  chassis  allow.  The  seating  capacity 
is  seldom  increased  by  transverse  roof  seats. 

The  design  of  bodies  from  the  constructional  point  of  view  is 
dealt  with  in  Chapter  VII. 

Locker  Space. — An  important  factor  in  the  design  of  a  motor 
body  is  the  space  allowed  for  tools,  spare  parts,  luggage  and  the 
various  accessories  incidental  to  comfortable  road  travel.  The 
modern  flush-sided  body  helps  to  increase  locker  accommodation 
so  long  as  the  seats  are  moderately  high,  but  even  when  a  seat  is 
some  9*  ins.  or  10  ins.  from  the  floor  the  whole  space  under  the  front 
seat  may  be  taken  up  by  a  petrol  tank.  When  the  back  seat  is  a 
low  one,  it  is  a  somewhat  perplexing  situation  to  arrange  the  car  for 
carrying  something  else  besides  passengers.  If  the  body  is  long 
a  space  can  be  arranged  between  the  back  of  the  driving  seat  and 
the  doorway ;  if  a  locker  can  be  made  under  the  hind  seats  it  will  be 


BODY  DESIGN  (LIMOUSINES  AND  OTHER  TYPES)  51 


an  added  convenience  if  it  can  be  got  at  both  from  inside  and  out, 
but  with  a  full-panelled  body  the  designer  is  loth  to  mar  a  beauti¬ 
fully  curved  surface  with  a  rectangular  opening  in  the  lower  part, 
but  utility  has  often  to  give  place  to  artistic  considerations. 

The  long  side  steps  are  used  for  fixing  tool,  accumulator,  and 
generator  boxes,  spare  wheel  rims,  flanges,  tyres,  and  so  on.  Drawers 
under  the  steps  are  often  seen,  but  a  better  method  is  to  use  part  of 
the  step  itself  as  the  lid  of  the  locker,  and  then  no  alterations  in 
climatic  conditions  or  careless  washing  of  the  car  will  cause  drawers 
to  bind,  although  wet  is  liable  to  enter  in  either  case.  The  step  is 
best  fitted  with  a  metal  depression,  if  a  spare  wheel,  or  similar 
equipment,  is  carried,  as  this  helps  to  make  this  accessory  less 
significant.  Lockers  can  also  be  devised  in  a  special  extension  of 
the  hind  seat  framework  with  a  door  opening  from  the  rear,  which 
may  be  just  the  size  to  take  a  spare  wheel,  or  be  divided  with  a 
lower  drawer  for  the  same  purpose,  and  upper  cupboards  and  smaller 
drawers  for  tools  and  other  items  of  the  equipment  such  as  curtains. 
The  two-seated  car  has  a  natural  large  locker  space,  and  all 
limousine  types  and  bodies  provided  with  a  canopy  have  a  large 
area  for  the  disposal  of  trunks  and  similar  contrivances.  Lockers 
beneath  the  floor,  between  the  spaces  of  the  transmission  mechanism, 
have  been  tried,  and  also  above  the  bonnet,  but  the  latter  has  little 
to  recommend  it  on  the  point  of  accessibility.  A  luggage  grid  is 
the  usual  accessory  called  for  in  all  types  of  bodies,  whether  they 
are  well  equipped  with  locker  space  or  not,  and  it  is  generally 
hinged  to  the  hind  bar  of  the  frame,  either  as  a  whole  or  in  two 
portions  with  a  pair  of  suitable  stays  to  take  the  strain  and  help  to 
keep  the  luggage  on  the  grid.  The  large  tool  box,  hung  from 
beneath  the  back  of  the  chassis,  has  fallen  into  disuse,  because  the 
petrol  tank  is  usually  slung  here.  Trunks  and  baskets  are  made  to 
fit  into  seat  lockers  so  as  to  be  removable  and  kept  clean  as  a  whole 
for  taking  into  a  hotel.  Trunks  are  made  specially  to  fit  the  back 
of  the  body,  the  roof  and  canopy,  and  inside  the  spare  wheel.  Tool 
boxes,  and  drawers,  opening  from  the  outside,  should  be  provided 
with  good  locks,  and  not  the  pattern  which  can  be  opened  with  a 
square  key,  which  is  inviting  the  pilferer. 


CHAPTER  Y 


THE  COACHBUILDER  AND  THE  MOTORIST 

The  motorist  has  not  always  made  up  his  mind  as  to  his  require¬ 
ments  concerning  the  coachwork,  although  he  usually  has  several 
ideas  which  he  is  anxious  shall  be  incorporated  in  the  body  to  be 
built. 

Who  shall  have  the  Order  for  the  Body.— Some,  of  course,  will 
visit  a  showroom  and  buy  a  complete  car  there  and  then,  but  those 
who  wish  to  express  an  individuality  in  the  body  work  mounted 
will  find  some  useful  advice,  it  is  hoped,  in  this  chapter,  and  hints 
are  given  which  will  save  time  and  money,  and  give  satisfaction  to 
all  parties  concerned.  There  is  more  than  one  channel  through 
which  the  body  may  be  ordered.  Some  go  to  the  motor  manu¬ 
facturer  who  has  a  coachbuilding  department  of  his  own,  or  who 
engages  an  outside  motor-body  builder  to  do  the  work,  others  go  to 
the  hundred  and  one  agents  who  sublet  the  work,  while  that  class 
who  desire  the  utmost  value  for  their  money  and  wish  to  get  in 
direct  touch  with  the  builder,  go  straight  to  the  motor-body  builder, 
a  practice  which  King  George  and  his  illustrious  father  both  have 
pursued. 

The  excuse,  perhaps,  for  putting  the  matter  in  the  hands  of  an 
agent  is  to  confine  one’s  transaction  to  one  invoice  and  to  have  one 
salesman  only  to  deal  with,  but  it  requires  but  little  consideration 
to  show  that  the  body  builder,  if  he  constructs  for  the  client  through 
a  middleman,  has  to  be  satisfied  with  less  profit,  while  if  he  is  able  to 
charge  a  higher  price,  he  would  gladly  spend  money  on  better  class 
materials  and  finish.  Also,  instructions  which  have  to  be  handed 
from  one  person  to  another  lose  some  of  their  exactness,  a  point 
which  may  be  often  proved  by  the  client  himself  interviewing  the 
coachbuilder,  even  when  he  is  buying  through  an  agent  who  is 


THE  COACHBUILDER  AND  THE  MOTORIST  53 


getting  20  to  25  per  cent,  for  doing  nothing  practically,  and  certainly 
taking  no  responsibility. 

The  Claims  of  the  Coachbuilder. — When  the  motor  manufacturer 
has  a  reputation  for  his  coachwork,  such  as  the  Daimler,  Austin  and 
Wolseley  firms,  it  is  no  doubt  a  good  plan  to  buy  the  complete  car 
from  them,  but  if  the  firm  from  which  the  chassis  is  purchased 
do  not  build  bodies,  then  it  is  far  better  to  go  straight  to  the 
coachbuilder  and  obtain  an  interview  with  the  principal.  It  will 
save  time,  all  matters  can  be  gone  into,  bodies  of  a  like  nature 
will  probably  be  seen  in  the  course  of  construction,  while  patterns 
of  cloth,  lace,  and  paint  may  be  inspected,  and  suggestions  from 
each  side  discussed  and  settled  by  a  practical  man  on  the  spot  as 
to  their  feasibility.  It  will  cost  no  more,  probably  less,  and  the  car 
may  be  taken  delivery  of  at  the  place  where  it  is  finished,  so  that 
its  completeness  when  compared  with  the  estimate  can  easily  be 
ascertained. 

Motorists  who  may  be  expected  to  go  to  an  agent  for  their 
coachwork  are  those  who  have  never  bought  a  horse  carriage. 
Probably  they  are.  ignorant  as  to  the  names  and  addresses  of 
suitable  firms.  They  should  then  consult  a  friend  who  has  the 
wider  knowledge  necessary,  or,  failing  personal  recommendation, 
recourse  may  be  had  to  a  directory ;  but  surely  any  man  with  the 
means  necessary  to  run  a  car  knows,  if  he  is  a  London  man,  the 
whereabouts  of  Hooper’s,  Barker’s,  Holland  and  Holland’s,  Thrupp 
and  Maberly’s,  Rothschild’s,  and  many  others  ;  or  if  he  is  a  Liverpool 
man,  of  Lawton’s ;  of  Manchester,  Cookshoot’s,  and  so  on,  almost 
indefinitely.  Orders  should  be  placed  locally  where  possible,  and 
the  small  man  is  often  a  genius,  although  he  may  not  have  an 
elaborate  showroom. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  body  builder  has  ideas  of  his  own, 
which  he  will  not  depart  from,  except  under  pressure.  A  leading 
coachbuilder  once  said  to  the  author  that  he  was  willing  to  build  a 
body  upside  down  if  necessary,  and  one  continually  hears  of  the 
coachbuilder  building  bodies,  largely  of  an  experimental  nature, 
in  order  to  carry  out  faithfully  the  wishes  of  the  client.  It  will 
be  remembered  also  that  most  body  builders  have  ridden  a  fair 
amount  themselves,  a  plea  which  could  not  always  be  truthfully  put 
forward  with  horse  carriages. 


54 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


The  Time  Factor.  —  The  motorist  should  have  previously 
decided  the  type  of  body  he  requires  from  the  illustrations  and 
descriptions  given  in  the  chapter  on  the  design  of  motor  bodies, 
while  the  question  of  colour  can  be  decided  from  the  tables  given 
in  Chapter  X.,  and  usual  accessories  needful  will  be  found  in  the 
chapters  devoted  to  them.  If  he  is  in  a  great  hurry  for  his  car,  it 
may  be  at  once  stated  that  dissatisfaction  is  sure  to  arise  subse¬ 
quently.  No  well-finished  body  can  be  built  and  painted  under 
eight  or  nine  weeks,  or  six  weeks  if  the  body  is  already  in  the 
bare  wood  and  iron. 

The  Blue  Print  and  Sketches. — The  coachbuilder  must  be 
provided  with  a  reliable  blue  print  if  the  chassis  cannot  be  delivered 
forthwith,  but  the  chassis  must  be  forthcoming  within  three  weeks 
of  the  finishing,  otherwise  there  will  be  a  vast  difference  in  the 
painted  surfaces  of  the  body  and  chassis.  Delivery  of  the  complete 
car  is  best  promised  as  so  long  after  the  delivery  of  the  chassis. 
The  time  question  having  been  satisfactorily  settled,  an  outline 
sketch  of  the  job  is  asked  for,  which  should  show  the  elevation  to  1  in. 
or  1J  in.  scale  or  full  size),  with  perhaps  a  plan  of  the  seating 
dimensioned  in  its  main  features.  This  sketch  should  be  retained 
after  final  approval,  the  coachbuilder  having  a  tracing  or  other 
copy  from  which  he  gets  out  his  full-size  drawing  for  the  body 
maker. 

If  a  coloured  drawing  is  asked  for,  the  motorist  should  be  willing 
to  pay  for  this,  if  he  retains  it  and  does  not  accept  the  final  estimate. 
No  particulars  of  the  estimate  should  be  left  to  verbal  instructions, 
everything  should  be  written  down,  so  that  the  oft-disputed  question 
of  extras  shall  be  absent  when  the  time  comes  for  payment. 

Visits  during  Construction. — A  motor-body  builder  who  is  not 
ashamed  of  his  methods  of  construction  and  the  selection  of  his 
material,  will  gladly  allow  his  client  to  see  the  body  during  con¬ 
struction.  A  diplomatic  visit  may  be  made,  say  twelve  or  fourteen 
days  after  giving  the  order.  He  will  then  get  a  good  idea  as  to  the 
type  of  framing  used,  the  fixing  of  the  panels,  and  the  neatness  of 
the  joints.  The  visit  should  be  made  only  for  the  purpose  of  judging 
the  workmanship  of  the  body,  and  not  as  an  opportunity  for  deciding 
on  something  different.  If  the  client  is  dissatisfied  with  a  piece  of 
timber  used,  he  should  say  so,  for  if  he  is  mistaken,  the  matter  will 


THE  COACHBUILDER  AND  THE  MOTORIST  55 

be  explained.  A  more  essential  visit  is  during  the  process  of 
trimming,  for  then  the  future  occupants  of  the  body  may  judge  of 
the  restfulness  and  adaptability  of  the  seats,  which  can  be  adjusted 
to  individual  requirements  exactly  now,  a  difficult  and  tedious 
matter  when  a  highly  finished  varnished  body  is  being  dealt  with. 
Every  motorist  who  is  jealous  of  the  comfort  given  by  the  upholstery, 
should  ask  for  an  appointment  when  he  may  try  the  trimming,  and 
half  an  hour  spent  with  the  manager  and  foreman  trimmer  will 
mean  time  well  spent  and  many  thousands  of  miles  of  comfortable 
travel.  The  back  squab  should  fit  snugly  to  the  back  and  shoulders, 
and  the  cushion  should  not  only  be  soft  and  full  of  life,  but  have  the 
tendency  to  force  one  to  use  the  back  support.  The  comfort  of  the 
feet  should  be  noted ;  if  there  is  any  straining,  probably  the  seat  is 
too  high.  If  the  appointment  has  been  wisely  made,  it  will  not  be 
too  late  to  lower  the  seat,  but  the  drawing  furnished  with  the 
estimate  should  state  the  height  of  seat  plus  that  of  the  cushion,  so 
that  this  may  be  compared  with  a  comfortable  chair  at  home. 

Having  been  satisfied  with  the  trimming,  the  motorist  will  be 
showing  his  discretion  if  he  leaves  his  next  visit  until  the  date 
mentioned  in  the  estimate  for  completion.  Any  interference  while 
the  painting  is  being  proceeded  with,  will  probably  be  resented,  as 
the  processes  are  delicate,  and  require  to  be  surrounded  by  those 
who  know  by  experience  how  to  guard  the  drying  surfaces.  The 
motorist  will  find  all  that  goes  on,  during  his  absence,  in  the  chapter 
on  painting. 

One  who  also  will  be  interested  in  the  completion  of  the  car 
is  the  chauffeur,  who  will  probably  wish  to  appear  on  the  scene 
before  the  final  coat  of  varnish  is  applied,  so  that  he  may  have  a 
look  at  the  chassis. 

The  owner,  however,  should  see  that  his  servant  is  not  guilty  of 
this  kind  of  aggravation.  The  chassis  may  be  inspected,  if  necessary, 
before  the  mounting  or  during  the  preliminary  stages  of  trimming. 
It  is  understood  that  the  final  tuning  up  of  the  mechanism  has 
already  been  accomplished,  although  some  motorists  willingly  pay 
an  extra  fee  after  the  body  is  mounted  and  finished.  The  only 
matter  which  may  present  itself  at  the  conclusion  of  the  work  is 
that  the  body  is  not  suited  to  the  chassis,  which  will  only  happen 
because  the  motor-body  builder’s  advice  has  been  over-ridden  on  the 


56  MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 

subject  of  wheel  base,  chassis  length,  hind  springs,  position  of 
steering  wheel,  and  other  elementary  matters  of  a  like  nature. 

The  chauffeur  then  should  be  able  to  fill  up  his  tanks  and  switch 
on  his  ignition  and  start  straight  away  when  the  eventful  moment 
comes.  His  presence  may  be  advisable  after  the  varnish  has 
hardened  and  when  accessories  are  being  attached,  so  that  he  may 
have  his  hooter,  speedometer,  outside  tool  box,  and  other  items  put 
where  they  will  be  most  handy. 


CHAPTER  VI 


MOTOR  BODY  DRAWING 

As  little  has  yet  been  written  which  has  for  its  object  the  assistance 
of  the  motor-body  builder’s  draughtsman,  it  is  hoped  that  the 
following  outline  of  the  subject  will  be  of  particular  interest  to  those 
who  wish  to  prepare  sketches  and  working  drawings  of  the  various 
kinds  of  motor  bodies. 

The  drawings  which  are  executed  in  the  carriage  factory  consist 
of  scale  drawings  in  ink  or  pencil,  in  outline,  plain  or  shaded, 
ranging  from  scales  of  f  in.  to  the  foot  up  to  1J  ins.  to  the  foot, 
and  larger  scales  for  detail  work ;  tracings  of  these  drawings  for 
reference  purposes,  and  for  making  blue  prints ;  and  full-size  working 
drawings  for  the  body  maker’s  and  sometimes  smith’s  use.  On 
rare  occasions  coloured  drawings,  in  elevation  and  perspective, 
are  done  to  show  the  prospective  client  the  general  effect  of  his 
proposed  car. 

Instruments. — The  instruments  used  should  be  of  the  best  quality, 
as  naturally  they  are  more  satisfactory  in  working  than  common 
ones,  a  vital  matter  to  the  draughtsman  who  cares  for  the  quality 
of  his  work. 

If  a  set  of  instruments  is  bought  in  a  case,  the  compasses  and 
other  items  can  be  kept  in  their  proper  places  in  it,  but  it  is  more 
economical  to  buy  the  various  tools  as  required  separately,  for  in 
an  expensive  case  there  are  likely  to  be  several  things  which  will 
be  seldom  or  never  used  in  the  ordinary  course  of  work,  while  a 
small  box  or  case  can  afterwards  be  procured  for  keeping  the  tools 
together.  The  following  is  a  general  list  of  tools  required  : — 

A  pair  of  German  silver,  best-quality,  needle-pointed,  long- 
jointed,  6-in.  compasses,  with  divider,  pen,  and  pencil  points, 


58 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


lengthening  bar  (for  drawing  large  circles) ;  knee  joints  throughout ; 
costing  about  16s. 

A  set  of  spring  bow  compasses,  comprising  a  separate  divider, 
pen  and  pencil  compass,  with  needle  points,  in  case,  costing  about 
12s.  Longer-legged  sets  may  be  had  for  another  3s.,  but  the  range 
of  the  6-in.  compasses  will  include  the  larger  size  circles  of  the 
longer  spring  bows,  therefore  the  smaller  spring  bows  will  be  more 
useful. 

A  good  drawing  pen  should  have  a  hinged  nib,  so  that  it  may 
be  easily  cleaned.  The  quality  of  the  handle  is  a  very  secondary 
consideration,  although  one  often  pays  as  much  for  it  as  the  other 
part.  A  good  pen  can  be  obtained  as  low  as  Is.  6cl.,  the  higher- 
priced  ones  having  ivory  handles,  which  are  less  liable  to  break 
when  dropped,  instead  of  bone  ones. 

It  is  better  to  buy  two  or  three  cheap  pens  with  useful  nibs, 
rather  than  buy  a  single  expensive  one,  as  the  draughtsman  then 
has  no  reserve  pen. 

A  useful  scale-rule  is  made  of  boxwood,  oval  in  section,  is  12  ins. 
long,  and  has  accurately  marked  on  it  all  scales  ranging  from  J  in. 
up  to  3  ins.  For  converting  French  into  British  measure  a  metre 
stick,  marked  one  side  metric  and  the  other  inches  and  parts  of 
an  inch,  will  be  found  of  great  service.  Two  or  three  drawing 
boards  will  be  required,  according  to  the  variety  of  work  done.  An 
imperial  size  is  useful  for  lj-in.  scale  work,  a  half-imperial  for  1-in. 
scale  work,  while  foolscap  size  is  handy  for  any  smaller  work 
executed.  There  are  several  ingeniously  made  boards  which  are 
designed  to  resist  altering  in  shape  to  the  slightest  extent,  so  as 
not  to  detract  from  the  accuracy  of  the  T -  and  set-squares  used, 
but  they  have  the  disadvantage  of  being  bulky,  and  a  carriage 
draughtsman  does  not  work  under  quite  the  same  rigid  conditions 
as  an  engineer’s  draughtsman,  for  in  dealing  with  curves  in  the 
preliminary  sketch,  he  will  require  to  move  his  board  often,  in  order 
that  his  wrist  (and  not  the  French  or  other  curve)  shall  have  full 
play.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  pay  a  good  price,  and  go  to  a 
reliable  house  for  one’s  drawing  boards,  as  seasoned  and  faultless 
timber  is  absolutely  essential. 

The  cost  of  three  boards  with  clamped  ends,  sizes  31  ins.  by 
22  ins.,  25  ins.  by  18  ins.,  and  15J  ins.  by  11  ins.,  will  be  about 


MOTOR  BODY  DRAWING 


59 


7s.  6d.  They  should  be  kept  in  a  dry  place,  a  remark  which  applies 
to  all  the  tools,  and  the  paper  as  well.  Engineers’  drawing  boards 
with  mahogany  battens  fastened  to  brass  slots,  will  cost  about  18s. 
for  the  two  larger  sizes. 

A  T-square  with  a  blade  wider  at  the  head  is  stronger  con¬ 
structionally  for  the  size  of  blade  used  than  if  it  were  parallel,  but 
the  latter  type  is  at  times  more  useful.  A  mahogany  T-square 
with  ebony  edge  should  he  available  for  each  larger  size  board  used, 
the  blade  overlapping  the  length  of  the  board  slightly.  The  pearwood 
T-square  for  the  small  board  will  cost  about  9 d.,  mahogany  ones 
for  the  others,  4s.  6d.  and  5s.  6d.  respectively. 

A  pair  of  set-squares  may  cost  anything  from  3 d.  (pearwood)  to 
15s.  (framed  in  mahogany  skeleton,  with  ebony  edges).  A  large 
protractor  will  be  handy  for  plotting  the  rake  of  steering  columns. 
A  semicircular  brass  one  will  cost  about  7s.  6d.  The  rectangular 
boxwood  protractor  and  parallel  rules  are  of  little  use. 

For  full-size  drawing,  straight  edges  will  be  required,  and  if  not 
made  in  the  shop,  may  be  had  in  mahogany  and  pearwood.  The 
most  useful  lengths  are  3  ft.  6  ins.  and  6  ft.  The  pair  of  mahogany 

ones  will  cost  10s.  6d.,  the  pearwood  5s.  6d. 

If  the  draughtsman  has  control  over  the  making  of  the  full-size 
drawing  board,  he  should  see  that  it  is  made  of  sound  pine,  about 
15  ft.  by  7  ft.  6  ins.,  with  a  large  T -square  hanging  from  the  top. 
The  drawing  board  should  be  painted  dead  black,  so  as  to  be  avail¬ 
able  for  chalk  work,  but  it  is  desirable  to  do  the  majority  of  the 
drawings  on  paper.  Paper  up  to  90  ins.  wide  may  be  obtained 

cheaply  in  rolls,  and  is  usually  sold  by  weight. 

The  curves  required  for  the  full-size  work  will  be  the  actual, 
or  copies  of  the  patterns  used  at  the  bench  and  in  the  saw  mill, 
and  got  out  by  the  body  maker.  For  scale-work  boxwood  ones 
should  be  cut  out  on  a  treadle  fretsaw,  and  then  filed  and  sand¬ 
papered  up  from  the  freehand  outlines  transferred  to  them,  such  as 
are  suggested  by  the  outlines  of  the  work  done.  If  the  diaughts- 
man  will  trace  the  curves  in,  say,  a  dozen  different  kinds  of  bodies, 
he  will  find  that  parts  of  many  of  the  lines  are  duplicated,  so  that, 
with  a  little  ingenuity,  one  pattern  will  give  a  considerable  amount 
of  service.  A  pattern  thus  made  up  should  not  be  more  than  9  ins. 
or  10  ins.  long,  and  in.  thick,  with  bevelled  edges  on  both  sides. 


6o 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


Both  long  edges  may  be  used  for  varying  outlines,  and  the  pattern 
should  be  left  solid,  that  is,  no  attempt  made  to  utilize  it  for  interior 
work,  which  will  weaken  it.  Twenty-five  well-thought-out  patterns 
will  be  sufficient  for  the  range  of  work  done  in  most  offices,  and  will 
cover  j-in.  to  ltj-in.  scale  drawings. 

Drawing  pins  are  less  dangerous  when  the  shank  is  punched 
out  and  turned  down  from  the  head.  A  gross  at  Is.  6cZ.  will  last 
a  couple  of  yeais  01  less,  according  to  the  number  of  borrowers 
likely  to  visit  the  office.  Most  brass  pins  are  finger-nail  breakers. 

Large  circles  and  arcs  in  full-size  work  should  be  done  with 
beam  compasses.  A  36-in.  T -section  oak  beam,  and  German  silver 
compasses  in  case,  will  cost  16s.  6c?. 

Rubber  for  removing  pencil  marks  is  best  purchased  in  sixpenny 
blocks.  It  should  be  soft,  so  as  to  wear  itself  out  rather  than  the 
paper.  .  A  sixpenny  piece  of  hard  ink  eraser  is  preferable  to  the  use 
of  a  knife  for  removing  ink  and  colour  work. 

Pencils  used  vary  in  price,  according  to  who  provides  them.  A 
silky  Koh-i-noor  is  a  delight. 

For  inking  in,  a  vellum  surfaced  saucer  and  stick  of  ink  will  be 
required.  Bottle  ink  saves  time  now  and  then,  but,  as  a  rule,  does 
not  flow  so  well  through  the  pen.  Two  4-in.  saucers,  say,  Is.  6cl. 
the  two,  a  stick  of  ink  at  9 cl.,  and  a  brush  at  4 d.  should  be  pur¬ 
chased.  A  water  glass  at  6d .,  which  is  not  so  liable  to  get  knocked 
over  as  other  receptacles,  will  also  be  found  serviceable. 

The  above  list  will  be  sufficient  to  give  a  general  idea.  Addi¬ 
tions  will  be  made  according  to  the  temperament  and  circumstances 
of  the  worker.  Whatman’s  paper  should  invariably  be  used  for 
scale  work,  which  may  be  had  in  hot-pressed,  or  smooth,  natural 
grain,  and  rough  surfaces,  and  in  various  thicknesses  (weight  per 
ream). .  Nothing  is  quite  so  helpful  in  keeping  the  draughtsman 
enthusiastic  at  his  work  as  a  good  quality  of  paper.  The  hot- 
pressed  surface  is  best  for  pen  and  pencil  work,  and  Bristol  board 
when  special  jobs  are  being  done,  or  for  coloured  work.  The 

advantage  of  good  drawing  paper  or  cardboard  is  that  the  eraser 
does  not  spoil  the  surface. 

It  is  best  to  work  on  a  board  which  is  tilted  about  2  ins.  with  a 
block  of  some  sort,  the  remaining  portion  of  the  table  being  flat,  so 
that  tools  lying  around  stay  where  they  are  placed.  The  bottom 


MOTOR  BODY  DRAWING 


61 


edge  of  the  work,  and  the  level  of  the  chair  seat,  should  be  about 
11  ins.  apart  vertically. 

Scale  Drawing. — The  student  must  fully  understand  the  use  of 
the  scale  rule,  and  be  able  to  draw  out  any  given  scale  should  he 
not  have  a  prepared  one  available.  An  inch  scale  represents  for 
each  actual  inch  one  foot,  and  the  first  left-hand  division  is  sub¬ 
divided  so  that  each  one-twelfth  part  represents  an  inch.  To  take 
off,  say,  3  ft.  4  ins.,  the  rule  will  be  laid  on  the  paper,  and  a  pencil 
mark  made  at  the  division  marked  “3,”  and  to  the  left  at  the 
fourth  subdivision  counted  from  the  left  of  the  division  marked 
“  0.”  The  dividers  are  also  useful  for  taking  off  a  measurement 
from  the  rule,  especially  when  several  lengths  of  the  same  value 
are  wanted  at  the  same  time.  With  a  scale  rule,  which  has  several 
scales  on  it,  the  subdivisions  of  one  scale  will  read  from  the  left, 
and  the  other  from  the  right-hand  end.  When  each  inch  on  a 
scale  represents  a  foot,  it  is  also  described  as  a  scale  of  yg,  a  half¬ 
inch  scale  as  three-quarter  inch  as  and  so  on,  according  to 
the  value  of  the  represented  to  the  actual  foot. 

Blue  and  other  prints  representing  foreign  chassis  are  often 
drawn  to  1,  x\y,  and  Tl5,  being  a  convenient  reduction  on  the  metric 
scale.  If  a  scale  is  made  in  feet  and  inches  to  I,  y1^,  and  y1^,  it  will 
reveal  at  once,  if  the  print  is  accurately  drawn,  the  corresponding 
British  measurement.  Usually,  however,  the  prints  furnished  are 
only  roughly  to  scale,  with  the  dimensions  stated  in  millimetres,  so 
that  it  is  necessary  to  reduce  them  to  feet  and  inches  by  means  of 
the  rule  which  has  been  mentioned,  or  tables  may  be  compiled  or 
purchased  to  show  at  a  glance  the  value  of  1-1000  millimetres  to 
the  nearest  sixty-fourth  of  an  inch. 

Arrangement  of  Elevations  and  Plans. — The  paper  having  been 
tightly  stretched  on  the  board,  the  overall  dimensions  of  the  work 
in  hand  is  noted,  so  that  the  views  may  be  well  set  out.  The 
side  view  will  be  the  full  length  of  the  chassis,  including  any 
forward  and  rear  overhang  of  the  springs,  and  if  a  landaulette  or 
cabriolet  the  extent  of  the  head  when  down.  To  this  will  be 
added,  with  a  clearance  between  the  views  of,  say,  1  in.,  the  half 
or  full  width  of  the  body  at  its  widest  point  (usually  the  steps 
or  wings).  The  majority  of  cars  are  seldom  more  than  7  ft. 
high  overall  when  mounted  on  the  chassis,  although  6  ins.  or 


62 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


7  ins.  may  be  required  in  addition  for  a  luggage  rail,  or  15  ins. 
to  20  ins.  if  the  travel  of  the  opening  of  the  cant  rail  is  to  be 
shown.  Plan  views  will  be  the  same  depth  as  the  end  views 
are  wide. 

The  arrangement  of  a  detailed  scale  drawing  will  be — side 
elevation  at  the  top  in  the  centre,  back  view  on  right,  front  view 
on  the  left,  with  the  plan  below  the  side  view,  so  that  the  various 
views  can  be  projected  from  one  another. 

An  example  will  now  be  taken  from  which  it  will  be  gathered 
how  the  work  is  done,  and  necessarily  much  will  be  learnt  in 
connection  with  motor  body  design.  It  is  taken  for  granted  that 
the  reader  has  a  knowledge  of  the  elementary  principles  of  plane 
and  solid  geometry. 

Drawing  a  Flusli-sidecl  Phaeton. — A  flush- sided  phaeton  will 
be  taken  as  the  example,  and  the  chassis  on  which  it  is  to  be 
mounted  has  the  following  dimensions.  It  is  proposed  to  draw 
the  side,  half-back,  half-front,  and  full  plan  views  : — - 


• 

M  illimetres. 

ft.  ins. 

Height  of  chassis  side  member  from  the  ground  (in 
the  straight) . 

610 

2 

0 

Dashboard  (all  dashboard  measurements  are  taken 
from  the  body  side  of  the  dashboard)  to  back  of 
hind  cross  member  of  the  chassis . 

2495 

8  2\ 

Thickness  of  dashboard . 

15 

0  Of 

Height  of  dashboard . 

660 

2  2 

Rise  of  frame  on  side  at  rear . 

60 

0  2f 

Radius  of  curved  profile  (top  centre  from  hind  axle 

centre) . 

881 

1  3 

,,  ,,  „  (radius  bottom  centre)  .  . 

622 

2 

01 

,,  ,,  ,,  (from  hind  axle  centre)  .  . 

41 

0  If 

,,  ,,  ,,  (radius  from  above)  .  .  . 

292 

0  114 

Centre  of  front  wheel  from  dashboard . 

835 

2  8| 

Height  of  wheels . 

880 

2  lOf 

Tyre  section . 

120 

0  4f 

Wheelbase  (distance  between  axle  centres)  .  .  . 

3164 

10  4f 

Width  of  frame . 

910 

2  Ilf 

Distance  from  dashboard  to  intersection  of  steering 
wheel  and  column  axes . 

603 

1  111 

Diameter  of  steering  wheel . 

406 

1  4 

Height  from  top  of  frame  to  centre  line  of  steering 
wheel  at  lowest  point . 

635 

2 

1 

Wheel  track  (distance  between  vertical  axes  of  hind 
wheels) . 

1435 

4 

84 

MOTOR  BODY  DRAWING 


63 


Millimetres. 

ft.  ins. 

Dashboard  to  quadrant  centre . 

546 

1  94 

Height  of  brake  lever . 

Brake  lever  stands  out  at  top  from  the  side  of  the 

686 

2  3 

chassis . 

190 

0  74 

Height  of  bonnet . 

538 

1  9 

Angle  of  steering  column . 

45  degrees 

Extent  of  travel  of  brake  lever . 

5  degrees  inwards  and 

25  degrees  outwards 

Position  of  differential  casing . 

Level  with  top  of 

straight  portion  of 
chassis 

Petrol  tank . 

At  rear 

below  top  of 

frame 

Further  measurements  are  mentioned  in  the  description  of  the 
drawing  which  follows. 

Fixing  the  Paper. — It  being  assumed  that  a  l|-in.  scale 
drawing  is  being  made,  the  largest  sized  board  is  taken  and  on 
it  an  imperial  sheet  of  Whatman’s  paper  is  pinned,  taking  care 
to  stretch  the  paper  as  tightly  and  as  evenly  as  possible.  Some 
prefer  to  strain  the  paper  on  while  wet.  This  is  done  by  gumming 
round  the  edge  of  the  board  and  damping  the  sheet  all  over,  and 
laying  it  down  with  the  wet  side  uppermost,  using  pins  to  retain 
the  edges  while  drying.  This  makes  a  beautifully  smooth  surface 
to  work  upon  when  dry,  but  it  entails  a  slight  delay,  although 
this  may  be  avoided  by  having  reserve  boards  and  papers  already 
stretched  in  position.  The  paper  is  then  removed,  when  the 
drawing  is  finished,  by  running  a  sharp  knife  inside  the  gummed 
edge. 

Taking  the  ordinary  method,  however,  it  is  a  slight  advantage 
if  two  sheets  be  pinned  on  at  once,  so  that  should  there  be  any 
inequalities  in  the  surface  of  the  board  the  lower  sheet  protects 
the  pen  or  pencil  from  lodging  in  a  groove,  also  when  the  ink 
eraser  is  used  no  dirt  is  transferred  to  the  back  of  the  working 
sheet  of  paper. 

Spacing  out. — To  space  the  drawing  out  well,  the  overall 
dimensions  of  each  view  must  be  approximately  known.  The 
side  view  will  be  the  extreme  length  of  the  chassis,  which  is 
generally  shown  on  the  blue  print,  while  the  end  views  will  be 


64 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


half  the  extreme  width  of  the  chassis.  As  the  track  is  4  ft.  8!,  ins., 
a  measurement  of  5  ft.  may  be  safely  reckoned  on,  and  as  the 
body  is  only  to  seat  two  comfortably  on  each  seat  this  will  not 
be  exceeded,  that  is  to  say,  the  body  will  not  be  wider  than  over 
the  wings  or  step  board,  and  it  may  be  mentioned  in  passing 
that  it  never  should  be. 

The  overall  length  will  be  reckoned  at  14  ft.,  and  the  height, 
showing  the  cape  cart  hood  up,  at  7  ft.,  and  the  plan  view  5  ft. 

The  paper  is  divided  horizontally  into  four  equal  portions,  by  a 
central  line  both  horizontally  and  vertically  by  the  lines  AB  and 
CD  (see  folded  diagram,  Fig.  17,  which  has  been  reduced  from  the 
l^-in.  scale  drawing). 

AB  will  form  the  ground  line  of  the  three  elevations,  while  CD 
will  be  the  centre  line,  each  side  of  which  will  be  measured  half  the 
overall  length,  namely,  7  ft.  The  space  below  AB  may  be  divided 
again  horizontally  by  the  line  EF,  which  will  form  the  centre  line 
of  the  plan  view.  If  only  half  the  plan  were  shown,  then  the  line 
AB  would  be  dropped  accordingly,  and  if  full  end  views  were  shown 
it  would  probably  entail  some  of  the  detail  overlapping  the  side 
view,  which  is  not  considered  objectionable,  unless  the  drawing  is 
for  special  purposes.  It  is  advisable  to  work  on  paper  as  small 
as  possible  consistent  with  clearness,  as  errors  in  projection  are 
less  likely  to  creep  in,  besides  providing  a  drawing  easier  to 
handle. 

On  the  ground  line  AB  the  draughtsman  now  proceeds  to  copy 
the  details  given  on  the  blue  print,  and  often  it  means  a  transposing 
of  scales  from  ^  to  ^  or  b  The  height  of  the  chassis  above 
the  ground  is  noted,  and  a  horizontal  line  drawn  in  with  the  T-square 
24  ins.  above  AB,  right  across  the  paper.  On  the  blue  print  is 
struck  a  central  vertical  line  corresponding  to  CD,  and  the  dis¬ 
tance  measured  with  a  metric  rule  or  an  English  one,  in  any  case 
multiplying  by  ten,  from  this  central  line  to  the  front  wheel 
centre.  This  is  found  to  be  5  ft.  11^  ins.,  and  measured  off  with 
1^-in.  scale,  a  vertical  line  GH  being  drawn,  on  which  the  circle 
representing  the  front  wheel  is  drawn.  This  is  done  by  taking  a 
radius  half  2  ft.  lOf  ins.  =  1  ft.  5^  ins., — and  marking  it  off  on 
the  line  GH,  with  the  point  of  the  compass  at  its  junction  with  the 
line  AB.  This  gives  point  I,  on  which,  without  altering  the 


MOTOR  BODY  DRAWING 


65 


compasses  except  to  transfer  tlie  point  from  G  to  I,  the  circle  of 
the  front  wheel  is  drawn.  The  wheel  diameter  may  be  more  quickly 
halved  by  taking  off  2  ft.  lOf  ins.  on  the  J-in.  scale,  and  leads  to 
less  mistakes.  To  the  right  of  GH  may  then  be  marked  off  the 
wheel  base,  10  ft.  4f  ins.,  another  vertical  line  drawn,  JK,  on  which 
the  hind  wheel  circle  is  similarly  described. 

To  draw  in  the  rise  of  the  side  member  of  the  chassis  (this  is  of 
less  importance  as  to  its  exactness  in  a  scale  drawing  than  in  a 
full-size  drawing,  as  the  curve  obtained  is  of  no  practical  use  for 
marking  out  the  stuff),  distances  If  ins.  and  15  ins.  are  each 
measured  to  the  left  of  JK,  and  vertical  lines,  LM  and  NO,  drawn  in. 
The  point  of  the  compass  is  then  placed  at  the  intersection  of  line 
NO  with  the  top  of  the  chassis,  and  a  radius  of  24 J  ins.  struck  off, 
the  point  of  the  compass  being  transferred  to  this  mark,  and  the 
arc  P  struck.  The  chassis  rising  2§  ins.,  this  distance  is  indicated 
by  a  line,  Q,  drawn  parallel  to  the  top  of  the  chassis.  Where  this 
cuts  line  LM,  a  distance  of  11^  ins.  is  marked  off  below  on  LM, 
and  the  arc  R,  with  a  radius  of  11 J  ins.,  drawn  in.  If  carefully  done 
the  two  arcs,  P  and  R,  and  the  straight  lines  of  the  chassis  at  its  two 
heights  will  run  neatly  into  one  another.  The  dashboard  is  drawn 
in  by  marking  off  32  J-  ins.  to  the  right  of  the  front  wheel  centre, 
and  the  thickness  by  a  line  |  in.  to  the  left  of  it.  Remembering 
that  all  dashboard  measurements  are  taken  from  one  side  of  it 
(preferably  the  back)  the  length  of  the  chassis  is  marked  off, 
8  ft.  2i  ins.,  and  the  vertical  line  S  drawn  in.  The  steering 
wheel  is  the  next  consideration.  Mark  off  7J  ins.  on  the  dash¬ 
board,  above  the  line  of  the  top  of  the  chassis,  and  through 
that  point  draw  a  line  at  an  angle  of  45°,  using  the  set-square 
resting  on  the  edge  of  the  T-square  held  firmly  against  the 
left-hand  side  of  the  drawing  board.  For  angles  otherwise  than 
45°,  60°,  and  30°  use  the  protractor.  The  line  so  drawn  is  the  axis 
of  the  steering  column.  To  the  right  of  the  dashboard  draw  another 
vertical  line  T,  1  ft.  11 J  ins.  from  the  dashboard,  and  where  this 
cuts  the  line  just  drawn  is  the  intersection  with  the  steering  wheel 
axis.  Draw  a  line  each  side  of  this  at  right  angles  by  means  of 
set  squares,  or  with  the  compasses,  using  a  simple  geometric  problem, 
measuring  off  8  ins.  to  right  and  left.  The  steering  wheel  being 
1J  ins.  thick,  allow  §  in.  either  side  of  the  central  line,  and  round 


F 


66 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


in  the  ends.  The  position  of  the  steering  column  may  be  given  in 
other  ways,  sometimes  the  length  from  the  dashboard  to  the  back 
of  the  wheel  being  given,  and  height  above  the  top  of  the  chassis. 
The  drawing  in  of  the  thickness  of  the  steering  column  is  merely  a 
matter  of  finish,  being  of  no  practical  use  in  designing  the  body,  a 
remark  which  applies  to  several  other  features  of  the  chassis. 
Allow  9  ins.  below  the  lowest  point  of  the  steering-wheel,  and  draw 
in  a  horizontal  line,  this  will  be  the  top  of  the  cushion ;  and  again 
another  one  6  ins.  below,  which  will  indicate  the  height  of  the  seat 
board  in  front. 

Draw  a  vertical  line,  U,  immediately  at  the  back  of  the  steering 
wheel.  This  will  be  the  front  of  the  driving  seat,  and  the  right- 
hand  side  of  the  forward  door,  providing  that  further  considerations 
do  not  indicate  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  bring  this  line  more 
forward  so  as  to  get  a  proper  entrance  to  the  hind  seats. 

The  Main  Dimensions. — The  hind  wing  should  now  be  drawn  in 
with  a  minimum  clearance  of  5  ins.,  and  temporarily  as  an  arc 
concentric  to  the  hind  tyre  with  a  5-in.  greater  radius.  Now  proceed 
to  apportion  out  the  seating,  leg  room,  and  back-door  gangway. 
A  measurement  of  20^  ins.  to  the  right  of  the  line  U  will  give  a 
comfortable  driving  seat  width,  the  line  S  (the  back  of  the  chassis) 
should  be  the  limit  of  the  body,  and  in  order  to  get  as  ideal  a  body 
as  possible,  it  will  be  endeavoured  to  use  this  point  from  which  to 
work  forwards  to  the  dashboard.  Allow  25  ins.  vertically  for  the 
depth  of  the  body  side  overall  on  the  square,  and  draw  in  the 
horizontal  line  YW,  and  then  two  more,  5i  ins.  and  6J  ins. 
respectively,  above  YW,  which  will  represent  the  rise  of  the  two  seat 
elbows.  Where  the  vertical  line  touching  the  back  of  the  driving 
seats  cuts  the  rise  of  the  front  elbow,  measure  to  the  right  4 j  ins., 
being  a  suitable  “  sail  ”  or  throw-out  for  the  driving  seat  back  panel, 
and  draw  in  a  straight  line  X  as  shown.  Measured  on  the  slant 
this  gives  a  measurement  of  about  24  ins.,  which  is  ample  to  give 
support  to  the  back.  Now  drop  the  line  of  the  seat  2  ins.  at  the 
back,  and  an  angle  slightly  greater  than  a  right  angle  will  be 
formed,  which  will  remain  more  or  less  about  the  same,  so  that  if 
the  seat  is  inclined  differently  the  back  of  the  seat  should  follow 
wTith  it. 

Show  below  the  seat  line  the  thickness  of  the  J-in.  seat  board. 


MOTOR  BODY  DRAWING  67 

The  curve  representing  the  rise  of  the  elbow  may  now  be  sketched 
in,  and  similarly  the  one  at  the  rear. 

Freehand  Drawing. — Here  comes  the  first  little  piece  of  freehand 
drawing,  and  the  draughtsman  should  firmly  resist  the  temptation 
to  find  a  pattern  that  will  fit  the  desired  curve,  and  draw  in  the 
required  line  unaided.  Such  a  course  leads  to  more  originality  in 
design,  besides  helping  him  to  acquire  an  ability  which  is  of  the 
highest  possible  service  to  the  accomplished  draughtsman.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  an  extra  inch  is  given  to  the  rise  of  the  hind  seat 
elbow,  as  this  prevents  any  tendency  for  the  hind  seat  to  look  less 
important  than  the  front,  which  would  be  the  case  if  both  were 
made  the  same  height.  As  the  hind  seat  elbow  is  slightly  higher, 
it  may  also  be  allowed  to  rise  from  the  straight  somewhat 
sooner. 

As  the  driving  seat  sails  4|  ins.,  the  rear  one  must  turn  under  at 
least  the  same  amount  for  the  same  depth,  and,  as  the  line  drops 
right  to  the  chassis,  6J  ins.  will  not  be  too  much.  This  distance  is 
then  marked  off  from  the  square  line  S,  and  a  gentle  rotund  curve 
drawn  in,  taking  care  that  there  is  no  tendency  for  the  line  to  run 
in  at  the  top,  and  that  the  tendency  for  fulness  is  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  line.  The  back  line  of  the  driving  seat  may  also  be  a  rotund 
curve,  but  as  the  greater  part  of  it  is  hidden,  the  design  as  shown 
allows  of  a  cheaper  job.  The  rise  of  the  elbows  and  the  shape 
given  to  turnunders  is  naturally  much  a  matter  of  taste,  and 
throughout  this  book  body  styles  will  tend  to  err  on  the  side  of 
restraint  rather  than  exaggeration. 

Plotting  the  Doorway. — The  levels  of  the  front  seat  are  now 
transferred  to  the  rear,  and  another  20^-in.  seat  board  drawn  in 
with  the  back  edge  touching  the  turnunder  line.  Between  the  two 
seats  there  is  now  left  20  ins.  leg  room,  measuring  horizontally, 
which  is  quite  sufficient  for  comfort,  as  there  are  no  extra  seats  to 
be  adopted,  and  there  will  be  no  cabinet  or  other  impedimenta 
behind  the  driving  seat.  The  door  is  now  plotted,  and  an  endeavour 
will  be  made  to  obtain  a  22-in.  doorway.  If  this  measurement  is 
taken  immediately  forward  of  the  front  of  the  hind  seat  an  encroach¬ 
ment  will  be  made  on  to  the  space  occupied  by  the  driving  seat, 
and  although  it  would  not  be  to  a  serious  extent,  matters  will  be 
compromised  by  allowing  the  hind  seat  to  project  an  inch  in  front 


68 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


of  the  back  line  of  the  door.  The  two  vertical  lines  of  the  22-in. 
doorway  may  then  be  drawn  in. 

Before  the  door  can  be  finally  settled  a  l|-in.  bottom  runner  is 
drawn  in.  To  this  is  added  the  extra  thickness  of  the  door  bottom 
side,  which  may  be  framed  in  separately  or  left  on  the  main  runners, 
and  usually  the  former  plan  is  more  economical.  The  bottom  of  the 
door  may  be  lower  still  if  it  is  a  “  cut  through  ”  doorway,  in 
which  instance  the  door  bottom,  when  closed,  is  by  the  side  of  and 
not  above  the  bottom  side,  or  rocker  as  it  is  then  called. 

Allowing  2i  ins.  overall  will  give  the  bottom  line  of  both  doors. 
The  bottom  corners  may  be  rounded  off,  but  this  is  much  a  matter 
of  taste,  although  it  will  assist  sometimes  in  getting  a  proper 
clearance  for  the  wing,  and  is  a  shape  which  is  less  liable  to  tear 
the  clothing. 

Without  rounding  in  these  corners  it  is  found  that  the  line 
temporarily  drawn  in  for  the  hind  wing  crosses  part  of  the  lower 
right-hand  corner  of  the  door.  This  may  be  done  away  with  by 
sketching  in  the  curve  of  the  wing  so  that  it  turns  in  more  sharply 
towards  the  tyre,  the  only  precaution  necessary  being  to  see  that 
the  minimum  clearance  of  5  ins.  is  preserved  vertically  at  all  points 
from  the  tyre.  This  can  be  easily  done  in  this  instance,  and  the 
wing  is  drawn  in  as  shown,  and  therefore  the  hind  door  may  be  left 
as  drawn  in,  also  the  wing  being  closer  to  the  wheel  it  is  a  better 
mud  intercepter. 

Designing  the  Scuttle-dash. — The  next  operation  is  to  draw  in 
the  lines  of  the  scuttle  dashboard.  Draw  in  the  top  of  the  bonnet 
21  ins.  above  the  top  of  the  chassis,  and  mark  off  26  ins.  as  repre¬ 
senting  the  height  of  the  dashboard.  The  front  backward  inclined 
line  of  the  scuttle  should  not  start  at  a  point  too  far  above  the  top 
of  the  bonnet,  but  at  the  same  time  it  is  more  important  that  the 
occupants  of  the  driving  seat  are  adequately  protected.  In  future 
designs  of  chassis  the  lines  of  the  bonnet  will  probably  receive 
more  study  at  the  hands  of  the  motor  manufacturer,  so  that  harmony 
between  the  bonnet  and  body  may  be  better  preserved.  In  this 
instance  a  start  will  be  made  from  the  top  of  the  dashboard,  and 
continued  back  behind  the  dashboard  8  ins.  (measuring  horizontally), 
giving  a  rise  of  5J  ins.,  and  then  running  the  line  from  the  top  of 
the  scuttle  down  into  the  line  of  the  top  of  the  body  side  in  a  gentle 


MOTOR  BODY  DRAWING 


69 


curve  as  shown.  The  higher  the  steering  wheel,  the  higher  the 
scuttle  should  be,  and  it  would  be  an  advantage  if  a  proper  control 
of  the  steering  could  be  obtained  by  having  the  wheel  itself  nearer  the 
dashboard,  so  that  merely  inclining  it  at  a  greater  angle  does  not 
necessarily  mean  that  the  distance  back  to  the  driving  seat  is 
increased  and  compactness  thereby  lost,  as  pointed  out  in  the 
chapter  on  the  steering  gear.  Starting  from  the  front  of  the  driving 
seat,  a  doorway  of  21  ins.  is  marked  off  to  the  left,  and  the  top  of  the 
front  line  of  the  door  rounded  in,  since  the  contour  of  the  body 
curving  inwards  would  mean  that  if  the  line  were  kept  straight  up 
an  awkwardly  shaped  piece  of  door  would  result,  in  fact  it  would  be 
a  sharply  pointed  piece  dangerous  to  entrants,  and  very  liable  to  be 
broken  off. 

Wings  and  Steps. — To  draw  in  the  step  boards,  measure  the  dis¬ 
tance  from  the  ground  (do  not  allow  for  a  curb,  as  this  is  not  always 
present  in  the  country  lane)  to  the  bottom  of  the  door  and  halve  it 
and  allow  an  extra  inch  for  the  first  step ;  this  will  be  the  top  line 
of  the  long  side  step,  or  running  board.  A  line  li  ins.  below  will 
give  the  thickness  of  the  step.  Finish  off  the  hind  wing  by  running 
it  down  to  the  step,  taking  care  to  make  it  an  angle  of  not  less  than 
a  right  angle  for  appearance’  sake,  while  the  tail  end  may  be  con¬ 
tinued  round  with  a  concentric  circle  to  the  level  of  the  centre  of 
the  wheel. 

The  front  wings  will  run  round  to  within  6  ins.  or  7  ins.  of  the  level 
of  the  centre  of  the  wheel,  and  the  concentric  arc  may  be  run  into 
a  return  curve,  so  that  it  just  meets  the  top  of  the  step  at  a  point 
below  the  dashboard.  This  will  not  always  be  the  case,  and  will 
depend  on  the  length  of  the  bonnet  and  its  relationship  with  the 
wheel,  and  so  on,  while  further  details  on  wing  design  may  be 
obtained  by  consulting  the  chapter  devoted  to  “  weather  protection. 
The  wing  flanges  may  also  be  added  (not  shown  in  the  drawing), 
and  it  is  a  neat  arrangement  to  make  the  front  flange  meet  the 
step  thickness,  rather  than  let  the  top  of  the  wing  come  level  with 
the  bottom  of  the  step. 

The  Half  Back  View. — Attention  may  now  be  directed  towards 
the  half  back  view.  Project  the  height  of  the  chassis  frame  at  the 
rear,  also  the  height  of  the  back  panel,  height  of  hind  wheel,  and 
wing,  height  of  hind  seat  in  front,  and  level  of  the  top  of  the  cushion 


7o 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


in  front.  Draw  a  vertical  line  about  half  an  inch  (full  size)  from 
the  edge  of  the  paper,  which  will  represent  the  half  line  of  the  back 
view.  From  this  line  measure  to  the  left  on  the  ground  line, 
2  ft.  ins.,  as  representing  half  the  track,  and  to  right  and  left  half 
the  width  of  the  tyre,  namely  2|  ins.,  then  draw  in  a  semicircle  top 
and  bottom,  and  the  end  view  of  the  wheel  is  obtained.  Measure  off 
half  the  width  of  the  frame,  17ff  ins.,  and  draw  downward  a  short 
vertical  line.  The  width  at  the  front  of  the  hind  seat  must  now  be 
decided.  A  medium-sized  brougham  measures  3  ft.  8  ins.  between 
the  hind  standing  pillars,  which  usually  correspond  to  the  front  of 
the  seat,  which  dimension  will  be  increased  on  the  top  of  the  cushion, 
according  to  the  shape  of  the  inside  face  of  the  pillar,  which  will  be 
largely  influenced  by  the  turnunder ;  a  large  brougham  will  be 
about  3  ft.  10  ins.  on  the  seat.  This  measurement  may  then 
be  looked  upon  as  ample  for  the  comfort  of  two  passengers  even 
in  a  fast-moving  car. 

Deciding  the  Width  of  the  Hind  Seat. — In  a  flush-sided  phaeton, 
such  as  is  under  consideration,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  hind  wheel 
crosses  the  horizontal  plane  of  the  seat,  and  if  3  ft.  10  ins.  be 
measured  on  the  line  on  the  half  back  view,  which  has  been  pro¬ 
jected  from  the  front  of  the  seat,  it  will  be  found  to  leave  a  very 
small  margin  between  the  side  of  the  seat  and  the  wheel,  even 
without  allowing  for  the  extra  thickness  of  framing  and  panel,  and 
the  up-and-down  motion  and  side  sway  of  the  body.  As  a  precaution 
it  will  be  advisable  to  show  the  position  of  the  wheel  at  its  point  of 
maximum  deviation  from  the  unloaded  position.  It  will  be  presumed 
that  the  body  is  capable  of  moving  downwards  5  ins.  vertically, 
and  If  ins.  laterally ;  this  may  be  expressed  by  copying  the  end  view 
of  the  wheel  at  a  position  5  ins.  higher  and  If  ins.  to  the  right. 

This  done,  the  turnunder  and  width  of  the  seat  may  now  be  safely 
planned  out. 

An  allowance  of  3  ft.  10  ins.,  with  1 J  ins.  only  allowed  for  framing, 
biings  the  body  right  on  to  the  tyre,  so  this  is  clearly  impossible, 
besides  preventing  any  increase  in  the  width  above  to  allow  for  the 
sail  of  the  body.  So  it  will  be  advisable  to  see  what  measurement 
can  be  obtained  without  specially  recessing  the  body  panel.  To  do 
this,  trace  the  back  line  of  the  body  in  the  side  elevation  together 
with  the  square  line  which  meets  it  at  the  top,  also  the  top  line  of 


MOTOR  BODY  DRAWING 


7l 


the  chassis.  Turn  the  tracing  paper  over,  laying  the  line  formed  by 
the  top  of  the  frame  on  the  line  projected  in  the  half-back,  and  slide 
it  along  until  the  curve  clears  the  tyre  at  its  maximum  deviation, 
say  ^  in.,  transfer  this  line  to  the  paper  (by  simply  drawing  over  it 
with  the  pencil),  and  a  suitable  line  will  be  obtained  to  work  on.  It 
is  not,  however,  essential  that  the  turnunder  at  the  back  should  be 
the  same  as  that  at  the  side ;  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  generally  less, 
but  it  should  in  any  case  harmonize.  The  line  Y  as  drawn  in  means 
that  the  bottom  framing  of  the  body  need  not  be  unduly  heavy, 
but  it  seriously  curtails  the  space  available  for  the  passengers 
legs. 

The  point  which  must  remain  is  where  the  tyre  is  nearly  touching 
the  panel  at  a ,  and  that  portion  of  the  line  above  and  below  may  be 
shaped  as  required,  having  due  regard  to  the  corner  panelling  of  the 
body  working  into  a  shapely  surface.  If  the  line  is  brought  further 
out  at  the  bottom  as  indicated  by  line  b,  a  wider  seat  may  be 
obtained,  and  increased  comfort  for  the  passengers.  Sketching  in 
the  line  b  a  further  half-inch  each  side  is  obtained  at  the  seat,  and 
li  ins.  each  side  for  the  feet,  and  drawing  in  a  line  parallel  ins. 

inside  represents  the  inside  line  of  the  framing. 

On  the  line  indicating  the  top  of  the  cushion  it  will  be  found 
that  it  measures  1  ft.  11^  ins.  from  the  half-line  to  the  inside  of  the 
framing,  which  being  doubled  means  that  the  cushion  will  be  3  ft. 
10^  ins.  at  the  top  in  front,  which  is  ample  for  two,  and  therefore 
the  line  b  will  be  suitable  for  the  purpose.  It  often  happens,  how¬ 
ever,  that  the  client  wants  comfort  for  three,  which  means  a  minimum 
of  4  ft.  inside  the  framing,  and  springs  often  upset  the  whole 
calculation  by  encroaching  On  the  space  immediately  beneath. 
However,  the  springs  in  this  case  are  the  ordinary  half  elliptics, 
and  two  only  will  be  seated.  For  the  sake  of  completeness,  the  wing 
may  be  drawn  in  and  the  position  of  the  step  and  its  stay  shown. 
The  wing  is  placed  centrally  over  the  wheel,  and  made  ten  inches 
wide,  and  the  step  will  agree  with  the  width  of  the  wing. 

The  Full  Plan.— It  will  now  be  advisable  to  proceed  with  the 
plan  before  inserting  more  detail  in  the  other  views,  as  often  the 
plan  will  suggest  modifications  being  made  in  the  elevations. 
The  full  plan  is  drawn  to  give  a  better  idea  of  the  seating  arrange¬ 
ment  to  the  customer,  who  is  not  always  sufficiently  technical  to 


72 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


appreciate  a  half  view  only.  For  a  similar  reason  full  end  views 
are  often  adopted. 

On  each  side  of  the  line  EF  draw  half  the  width  of  the  chassis, 
and  inside  this  the  width  of  the  side  members  57  mm.  or  2J  ins., 
lines  q  and  r  respectively.  This  inner  line  r  decides  to  a  great 
degree  the  inside  line  of  the  bottom  runner,  and  therefore  its  width, 
the  outside  line  being  already  represented  at  the  widest  part  of 
the  body  by  line  b  in  the  half  back  view. 

Project  vertically  lines  downward  from  the  side  elevation  at 
the  wheel  centres  and  extremities,  ends  of  wings,  dashboard,  front 
and  back  of  seats,  top  of  back  panel  of  both  seats,  door  gangways, 
back  of  frame,  and  other  points.  On  the  line  c  projected  from  the 
front  of  the  hind  seat,  take  off  with  the  dividers  the  seat  width  and 
that  of  the  body  at  the  top  (points  d  and  e),  and  width  on  bottom 
(point  n).  The  seat  line  has  to  run  round  to/,  and  the  top  line  of 
body  to  g,  and  n  to  o.  Whichever  line  is  drawn  first,  the  others 
must  harmonize  writh  one  another,  and  the  fulness  of  the  corner 
is  much  a  matter  of  taste,  but  if  the  corner  is  made  too  slow  it 
will  not  allow  the  passenger  to  sit  snugly  with  his  shoulders  well 
supported. 

Draw  a  horizontal  line  through  e  until  it  cuts  g  at  h ,  through  li 
draw  a  line  at  45°,  and  as  a  guide  to  a  suitably  shaped  corner 
measure  on  the  line  just  drawn  184  ins.  from  h,  giving  point  i,  and 
draw  in  an  arc  p  of  not  greater  than  11  ins.  radius.  With  this  arc 
as  a  guide  draw  in  the  curved  line  from  e  to  g,  remembering  that 
the  line  must  come  into  the  straight  at  least  6  ins.  before  it  arrives 
at  the  centre  line,  otherwise  it  will  tend  to  form  a  peak  in  the  back 
panel.  The  radius  of  the  corner  of  the  top  line  of  the  body  usually 
runs  in  medium-sized  bodies  about  9  ins.,  and  at  the  seat  6  ins. 
Smaller  bodies  should  have  sharper  corners,  so  as  not  to  look  too 
tubby.  The  bottom  line  of  the  body  or  outside  of  the  runner  may 
now  be  obtained  by  the  following  geometric  procedure. 

Setting  out  the  Hind  Corners. — Take  any  point  k  on  line  c,  and 
join  kh  and  kl,  l  being  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  body  bottom 
width ;  produce  n  until  it  cuts  line  S  at  m.  Take  any  point  j  on 
the  line  EF,  and  join  mj  and  hj.  Take  any  number  of  points  in  curve 
of  body,  say  four,  numbering  them  as  shown.  Corresponding  points 
may  now  be  obtained  on  the  body  bottom  line,  through  which  the  line 


MOTOR  BODY  DRAWING 


73 


no  is  drawn,  and  the  more  points  taken  the  more  accurate  the 
resulting  line.  Produce  point  1  horizontally  to  the  right  until  it 
touches  hjf  at  this  point  drop  a  short  vertical  line  to  mj,  and  from 
this  point  produce  a  horizontal  line  to  the  left.  From  point  1 
again  produce  upwards  a  vertical  line  touching  kh,  then  horizontally 
to  the  left  till  it  touches  H,  and  vertically  down  again  until  it  touches 
the  horizontal  line  produced  from  mj.  This  is  point  1'  on  the  line 
no.  The  other  points  are  similarly  projected,  and  then  through  them 
the  bottom  line  is  carefully  sketched.  This  trouble  is  not  often  taken 
in  motor  body  shops,  but  if  adopted  it  takes  up  but  little  time,  and 
well  repays  the  slightly  extra  trouble  taken  by  the  beauty  of  the 
panel  surface  produced,  if  it  is  intelligently  carried  out.  The  seat 
line  df  may  be  similarly  plotted. 

Enclosing  the  Levers. — The  plan  will  be  largely  influenced 
according  to  whether  one  or  both  levers  are  enclosed.  If  both  are 
enclosed  the  greatest  width  overall  the  outer  or  brake  lever,  plus 
a  reasonable  clearance  for  the  grip  of  the  hand  (say,  2^  ins.  from 
the  centre  of  the  brake  handle),  will  decide  the  minimum  width 
inside  the  body  throughout  the  path  travelled  by  the  lever.  If  one 
lever  is  outside,  and  the  other  inside,  then  the  door  must  come 
neatly  between  them,  and  so  far  very  few  blue  prints  give  sufficient 
information  so  that  this  may  be  done  with  confidence,  without 
reference  to  the  actual  chassis. 

Draw  in  the  brake  lever  and  its  travel  in  the  side  elevation, 
by  making  the  rolling  centre  21J  ins.. from  the  dashboard,  and  1  in. 
below  the  top  of  the  chassis.  With  the  compass  draw  in  an  arc 
of  27  ins.  radius,  and  draw  a  vertical  line  through  the  rolling  centre. 
With  the  protractor  mark  in  an  angle  of  25°  and  50°  to  the  right 
and  left  respectively,  and  with  these  as  centre  lines  show  a  lever 
1  in.  wide.  Project  the  limits  of  travel  to  the  plan,  and  draw  in 
also  the  quadrant  by  means  of  a  rectangle  4J  ins.  deep  and  7f  ins. 
wide,  abutting  on  to  the  outside  of  the  chassis,  and  2f  ins.  to  the 
right  of  the  lever  working  centre. 

The  brake  lever  stands  out  7J  ins.  to  the  centre  of  the  handle  from 
the  side  of  the  chassis ;  adding  to  this  half  the  width  of  the  chassis, 
a  measurement  of  25  ^  ins.  is  obtained.  If  the  off-side  door  is 
fixed,  because  entry  on  that  side  to  the  driving  seat  is  awkward, 
it  may  be,  say,  f  in.  in  thickness,  but  if  it  is  to  be  hinged,  at  least 


74 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


another  f  in.  will  be  added.  Presuming,  however,  that  it  is  fixed, 
and  allowing  2J  ins.,  as  before  mentioned,  as  hand  clearance,  a  half¬ 
width  over  all  the  body  of  17-}-f  4-  7£  4-  +  f  ins.,  is  obtained, 

namely,  28|J  ins.,  as  the  minimum  width  of  the  body  where  the  lever 
works.  Project  the  height  of  the  lever  from  the  side  to  the  end 
elevation,  and  mark  on  it  this  measurement,  and  it  will  be  found 
that  if  both  levers  are  to  be  enclosed  the  body  will  have  to  be  2J  ins. 
wider  a!  side  at  the  front.  This  will  not  make  an  artistic  body ; 
it  also  means  greater  weight  of  timbers  in  the  bottom  framing,  but 
on  the  other  hand,  greater  protection  for  the  passengers.  If  the 
width  of  the  hind  seat  be  increased,  and  the  body  paddle-boxed  at 
the  hind  wheels,  so  as  to  keep  the  outside  lines  of  the  body  more 
parallel,  this  entails  what  is  obviously  a  clumsy  method  of  getting 
out  of  the  difficulty,  although  it  is  often  necessary  with  the  present 
types  of  chassis. 

The  most  suitable  compromise  will  be  to  have  a  fixed  door 
running  between  the  levers,  and  for  this  full  details  regarding  the 
movement  of  the  change-speed  lever  must  be  known. 

The  change-speed  lever  stands  out  in.  from  the  chassis 
when  in  first  speed,  is  24  ins.  long  and  1  in.  wide,  works  from 
a  centre  1  in.  above  the  brake  lever,  and  moves  laterally  3  J  ins. 
to  engage  the  third  speed,  while  its  limit  of  movement  is  10° 
backward,  and  15°  forward.  Mark  out  these  positions  on  the 
elevation  and  plan. 

More  detail  regarding  the  quadrant  will  now  be  necessary, 
and  it  will  be  convenient  to  draw  in  the  levers  in  a  small  separate 
end  view,  as  shown  between  the  side  and  half  back  views.  On 
examining  this  sketch  it  will  be  found  that  the  centre  line  s  of  a 
dpor  to  come  between  the  levers  measures,  as  the  half-width 
overall,  1  ft.  11§  ins.,  measuring  from  centre  line  t ,  which  length, 
transferred  to  the  height  of  the  speed  lever  projected  on  the  half 
back,  means  that  the  body  will  be,  allowing  f  in.  for  the  substance 
of  the  door,  1^  ins.  narrower  a  side  at  the  front  than  at  the  rear, 
which  can  be  easily  controlled  by  the  line  taken  up  by  the  side 
sweep  of  the  body,  without  interfering  with  the  comfortable  width 
of  the  driving  seat,  as  the  lever  travel  is  all  in  front  of  this  seat. 
The  rake  given  to  the  levers  also  decides  the  turnunder  of  the 
body  at  this  point,  but  they  may  be  slightly  set  backwards  or 


MOTOR  BODY  DRAWING 


75 


forwards  if  necessary,  but  it  is  not  essential  that  the  contour 
of  the  off  side  door  should  be  exactly  reproduced  on  the  near 
side,  although  the  carriage  builder  will  necessarily  prefer  to  have 
it  so. 

The  designers  of  artistic  motor  bodies  naturally  look  forward 
to  the  day  when  speed  levers  will  be  centrally  placed,  and  all 
brake  control  confined  to  pedals,  which  is  not  by  any  means  an 
engineering  impossibility,  but  naturally  motor  manufacturers  are 
shy  of  presenting  drastic  innovations  on  their  chassis,  as  they 
have  to  take  into  consideration  whether  they  will  be  appreciated 
by  the  motorist. 

Having  made  a  careful  drawing  of  the  position  of  the  speed 
lever  in  both  its  positions,  and  also  brake  lever,  the  section  of 
the  off  side  door  is  drawn  in  as  shown  in  the  small  sketch. 
The  width  of  the  body  at  e  having  already  been  decided,  and 
the  limit  of  width  having  now  been  ascertained  from  the  position 
between  the  levers,  the  outside  line  of  the  body  from  e  to  u  may 
be  sketched  in,  and  so  long  as  it  is  slightly  fuller  than  a  straight 
line  the  style  of  the  body  will  be  maintained.  This  line  runs 
round  to  the  dashboard,  while  it  also  meets  the  curve  v,  which 
runs  round  to  the  bottom  bearing  of  the  wind  shield.  The  out¬ 
side  of  the  bottom  side  or  runner  is  already  known  at  n9  and  in 
order  to  draw  it  in  forward,  and  maintain  about  the  same  turn- 
under  (it  may  be  gradually  decreased  if  necessary),  the  compasses 
are  set  to  the  distance  en,  and  short  arcs  marked  off  from  the 
line  en,  so  that  a  line  parallel  to  en  is  obtained,  which  is  finally 
run  into  the  dashboard  line  in  front.  It  is  now  seen  that  the 
position  of  the  quadrant  will  necessitate  cutting  away  most  of 

the  bottom  runner  on  the  off  side. 

The  driving  seat  line  may  be  obtained  by  drawing  in  a  small 
section  as  shown  in  the  doorway  to  the  back  seats.  The  turnunder 
on  line  U  is  already  shown  in  plan.  Draw  two  vertical  lines  the 
distance  of  the  turnunder  apart,  and  also  to  the  left  represent  the 
centre  line  of  the  car,  and  the  width  of  the  chassis.  The  horizontal 
line  already  drawn  in,  in  the  elevation,  will  show  the  half-length  of 
the  seat  overall  in  front,  which  is  then  transferred  to  the  plan  on 
line  U,  and  the  curve  of  the  seat  drawn  in  with  about  a  6-in.  radius 
at  the  corner.  The  top  line  of  the  seat  will  correspond,  allowing 


76  MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 

it,  in  the  first  instance,  to  run  into  the  outside  line  of  the  side  of  the 
body. 

Finishing  off  the  Elevations. — In  the  back  view  the  line  of  the 
horseshoe  moulding  may  be  drawn  in,  letting  the  half-width  of  the 
shoe  be  about  the  same  as  the  space  left  on  each  side.  The  lower 
part  of  the  shoe  should  run,  as  near  as  possible,  parallel  to  the  side 
turnunder,  and  run  in  neatly  into  the  top  line.  Mouldings  J  in. 
wide  can  then  be  drawn  on  the  elevation. 

The  Half  Front  View . — The  half  front  view  is  not  of  much  con¬ 
sequence  in  an  open  body,  but  in  limousines  and  landaulettes  there 
are  front  lights  to  design.  However,  the  lines  of  the  dash,  the  top 
line  of  the  scuttle,  and  the  greatest  width  of  the  body  may  be 
shown,  also  the  front  wheels  in  position.  The  point  x ,  at  which  the 
scuttle  line  runs  into  the  straight,  is  obtained  by  projecting  from  the 
side  elevation  into  the  plan,  measuring  the  width  at  that  point  and 
transferring  to  the  half  front  view. 

Setting  out  the  Cape  Cart  Hood. — The  cape  cart  hood  may  be 
shown  by  drawing  in  a  horizontal  line  8  ft.  10  ins.  off  the  front  of 
the  seat  board.  This  is  the  head  room  allowance,  but  this  should  be 
decreased  if  the  cushion  will  be  less  than  6  ins.  thick,  or  if  the  seat 
slopes  more  than  shown.  Allow  a  drop  of  8  ins.  in  front  and  8  ins. 
at  the  rear  with  a  sail  of  If  ins.  measured  from  a  line  1J  in*  beyond 
the  line  S,  which  allows  for  the  thickness  of  the  trimming  roll. 
The  position  of  the  sticks  will  differ  according  to  the  number  used, 
and  the  particular  mechanism  adopted.  For  the  sake  of  simplicity 
three  upright  sticks  only  will  be  used  each  side. 

Point  y  is  8i  ins.  to  the  right  of  the  door  shut  line,  and  ins. 
above  the  top  line  of  the  body.  In  this  position  it  is  well  clear  of 
the  gangway,  and  the  radius  from  y  to  z  clears  the  back  rest  well  so 
that  the  hood  can  be  properly  lowered. 

The  centre  line  of  the  corner  stick  runs  up  to  the  line  of  sail 
at  the  rear  of  the  hood,  and  its  junction  with  the  line  yz  will 
depend  on  the  exact  shape  of  the  type  of  cape  hood  ironwork 
purchased,  for  it  is  seldom  that  the  carriage  builder  now  makes 
his  own,  in  which  case  it  would  entail  a  drawing  being  got  out 
for  the  smith.  The  front  vertical  stick  centre  is  8  ins.  to  the 
right  of  the  front  door  shut,  which  is  again  well  out  of  the  gangway, 
and  leaves  38  ins.  spread  between  it  and  the  next  stick,  which  is 


MOTOR  BODY  DRAWING 


77 


not  too  much  without  setting  up  undue  sagging  of  the  hood.  The 
front  horizontal  sliding  stick  is  brought  well  forward  of  the  wind 
screen  some  7J  ins.,  which  decides  the  front  peak  of  the  hood. 

The  position  of  the  wings,  steps,  and  wheels  is  shown  in 
the  plan,  and  the  swing  of  the  doors  is  obtained  by  projecting  the 
hinge  line  into  the  plan,  and  measuring  out  from  the  surface  of  the 
body  the  distance  out  of  the  pin  of  the  hinge.  This  is  the  centre 
required,  while  the  radius  will  be  the  width  of  the  door.  From  the 
shape  of  the  turnunder  it  will  be  expedient  to  use  an  outrigger  hinge 
at  the  bottom. 

In  the  drawing,  most  of  the  constructional  lines  have  been  left 
in  so  as  to  assist  the  student  in  following  the  various  steps  taken. 
Further  detail  would  consist  of  showing  the  framing,  and,  if  required 
by  the  customer,  the  general  arrangement  of  the  trimming  in  the 
plan.  The  position  of  the  elbow  rolls  and  cushions  is  shown  in  the 
elevation,  and  with  the  cape  hood  the  position  of  the  hind  body 
prop  is  set  out  so  as  to  show  how  the  fall  of  the  hood  is  pre¬ 
determined,  while  the  same  piece  of  ironwork  projected  into  the 
plan  shows  how  much  it  has  to  stand  out  from  the  body  so  as  to 
get  a  fixing,  and  give  sufficient  width  to  take  a  stick,  which  is 
greater  than  the  full  width  of  the  body. 


CHAPTER  YU 


MOTOR  BODY  MAKING 

The  construction  of  motor  bodies  is  a  craft  which  has  been  directly 
evolved  from  the  building  of  horsed  carriages,  but  although  many 
of  the  principles  adopted  are  the  same,  yet  the  mounting  of  the  body 
on  a  chassis  has  simplified  matters  in  one  direction,  in  that  no  lock¬ 
ing  forecarriage  has  to  be  allowed  for,  while  in  the  other  the  larger 
number  of  requirements  which  have  to  be  fulfilled  have  necessarily 
created  several  differences  in  the  setting  out  of  the  framework  and 
panelling. 

The  body  maker  is  a  wood  worker  whose  employment  differs 
materially  from  the  house  joiner  and  carpenter,  because  on  the 
whole  he  has  to  work  in  harder  woods,  the  structure  dealt  with  is 
more  complex,  necessitating  a  larger  tool  kit,  and  greater  skill  and 
accuracy  of  fitting  is  absolutely  essential. 

The  Question  of  Light  Construction. — English  ash,  being  strong 
and  elastic,  is  the  most  suitable  timber  with  which  to  make  the 
several  parts  of  the  framework  for  cars  used  in  temperate  climates, 
although  the  American  variety,  which  is  less  strong,  may  be  safely 
utilized  for  parts  where  no  great  strain  takes  place.  Seeing  that- 
the  body  is  directly  supported  on  the  chassis,  one  would  naturally 
suppose  that  some  of  the  main  framework  of  the  body  would  be 
lighter  than  in  a  brougham  where  the  body  has  to  maintain  its 
correct  shape  independently,  and  has  to  be  stiffened  by  a  large 
edge  plate  on  either  side. 

With  a  front  standing  pillar  there  must  be  sufficient  size  at  the 
top  in  order  that  the  tenon  formed  in  the  end  is  strong  enough  to 
make  a  serviceable  joint  with  the  mortice  in  the  cant  rail.  At  the 
centre  of  the  same  pillar  the  width  on  the  inside  face  must  be 
sufficient  to  allow  for  the  glass  frame  and  the  necessary  clearances 
and  allowance  each  side  of  the  run,  while  at  the  foot  there  must  be 


MOTOR  BODY  MAKING 


79 


again  enough  left  for  fixing  to  the  bottom  side  and  rocker  side, 
although  on  many  occasions  a  great  deal  of  extra  material  has  to  be 
used  in  order  to  give  a  certain  shape  to  the  toe  of  the  pillar,  apart 
from  constructional  needs.  Such  a  pillar,  seeing  the  influences 
which  govern  its  size,  will  differ  little  whether  forming  part  of  a 
limousine  or  horsed  brougham. 

With  the  hind  standing  pillar,  this  usually  has  to  withstand  the 
strain  of  the  door  hanging,  but  less  material  is  cut  away  now  that 
butt  instead  of  concealed  hinges  are  used ;  still  the  elbow,  seat,  and 
lower  framing  is,  as  a  rule,  longer,  and  therefore  needs  practically 
as  stout  a  fixing  place  as  if  these  parts  were  shorter  and  not  directly 
supported. 

Why  Stout  Timbers  are  required . — The  weight  of  pillar  timber  is, 
however,  usually  greater  than  in  the  horse  carriage,  simply  because 
the  chassis  is  seldom  ideally  designed  to  carry  a  body,  such  as  is 
required  by  the  motorist. 

A  fashionable  horsed  brougham  has,  say,  a  2-in.  turnunder, 
meaning  that  the  width  overall  on  the  bottom  at  the  door  is  4  ins. 
less  than  at  the  elbow ;  here  it  is  possible  to  shape  the  body  to  give 
the  maximum  of  comfort,  and  then  design  an  undercarriage  to 
suit  it.  With  the  motor  car,  however,  the  chassis  sizes  are  pre¬ 
determined  and  a  6-in.  turnunder,  meaning  12  ins.  less  overall  at 
the  bottom,  is  quite  a  common  occurrence.  This  larger  turnunder 
would  not  necessarily  mean  a  heavier  framework,  only  in  bodies 
which  are  provided  with  drop  lights  the  path  of  travel  of  the  glass 
frame  must  necessarily  be  a  straight  one,  or  even  if  it  is  slightly 
curved  this  cannot  save  much  timber,  as  the  same  glass  frame  has 
to  occupy  the  run  above  the  elbow  as  well  as  all  positions  below  it. 
It  may  therefore  be  deduced  that  a  great  deal  of  weight  can  be 
saved  in  any  type  of  body  if  it  has  no  drop  glass  frames,  as  the 
inside  face  of  the  pillar  can  be  parallel  to  the  outer  one. 

The  elbow  in  a  motor  body  has  usually  to  stand  the  strain  of  a 
greater  weight  of  head  work  in  a  landaulette ;  for  that  reason  the 
elbows,  corner  pillars,  and  hind  cross-framing  cannot  be  any  lighter 
than  in  a  large  horsed  landau.  The  hoopsticks  which  carry  the  roof- 
boards  have  in  many  instances  a  greater  width  to  bridge  over,  and 
heavier  luggage  to  carry,  so  that  the  presence  of  a  chassis  does  not 
permit  of  any  diminution  in  their  substance. 


8o 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


Saving  Weight  in  Seat  Construction. — Perhaps  the  chief  item 
where  weight  can  be  saved  is  in  the  seat  bottom  side.  This,  in  a 
horse  carriage,  has  to  be  strong  enough  to  take  the  fixing  for  the 
pump  handle  to  which  the  hind  carriage  is  attached,  and  deep 
enough  to  take  the  edge  plate  on  its  inner  face.  In  a  motor  car  the 
main  seat  is  directly  supported  by  the  rocker  side,  so  that  in  a 
limousine,  or  open  body,  the  seat  framing,  an  inch  in  thickness, 
does  duty  also  as  a  thick  seat  bottom  side,  a  practice  which  can  be 
safely  adopted  in  landaulettes  also,  but  so  far  this  style  of  framing 
appears  to  be  confined  to  taxicabs. 

Weight  in  excess  of  constructional  requirements  is  present  in 
the  front  top  rail  of  a  closed  body.  Here  the  bottom  line  has  to 
conform  to  a  suitable  groove  to  hold  the  glass  frame  when  right  up, 
and  the  top  line  of  the  rail  follows  the  rise  given  to  the  roof.  Now 
it  is  an  established  practice  that  the  top  line  of  the  lights  shall  run 
round  the  sides  and  front  of  the  body  so  as  to  be  on  the  same  level ; 
this  means  in  the  case  of  either  a  side  or  front  light  that  the  extra 
depth  of  a  door  top  has  to  be  added  to  the  substance  of  the  rail.  It 
would  no  doubt  cost  more  to  frame  and  panel  this  upper  framework, 
or  failing  this,  it  would  be  better  to  use  simply  the  amount  of  sub¬ 
stance  required  without  regard  to  lining  up. 

Additional  weight  is  often  caused  by  the  adherence  of  a  designer 
to  old  rules,  and  one  of  these  is  that  a  glass  must  be  completely 
hidden  when  it  is  on  the  glass  rest.  In  a  front  pillar,  with  a  6-in. 
or  7-in.  turnunder,  this  means  a  large  bulk  of  stuff  left  on  the 
inside  in  order  to  get  a  straight  drop  for  the  glass,  although  a 
lighter  method  of  construction  is  sometimes  used  by  framing  and 
panelling  as  suggested  above  with  the  upper  framework  of  lights. 

The  Weight  Factor  as  directly  influenced  by  the  Chassis . — The 
flange  of  the  chassis  on  which  the  bottom  of  the  body  rests  is  about 
2  ins.  wide.  If  the  bottom  framework  could  be  made  that  width 
only,  then  many  pounds  could  be  saved  in  weight.  Usually,  how¬ 
ever,  this  2  ins.  is  but  a  mere  ledge  or  side  bearing  for  a  bottom 
runner  some  six  or  more  inches  wide,  made  necessary  by  the  width 
of  seat  demanded,  and  confining  turnunder  within  reasonable  limits 
so  as  not  to  unduly  cramp  the  legs  of  the  passengers.  If  extra 
width  were  put  in  the  chassis,  all  cross  members,  shafts  and  axles 
would  have  to  be  longer,  which  in  the  end  would  probably  mean  a 


MOTOR  BODY  MAKING 


8 1 


greater  weight  than  is  already  entailed  in  the  present  method  of 
body  building.  This  bottom  framing  need  only  be  wide,  any 
great  thickness  apart  from  a  suitable  allowance  to  take  the  foot  of 
the  pillars  and  the  rebates  for  the  floor  boards  is  all  that  is  necessary, 
although  even  this  consideration  may  be  disregarded  by  placing  the 
floor  boards  on  top  of  the  bottom  runner  instead  of  letting  them  in. 

Attention  has  also  been  directed  in  the  chapter  on  drawing  to 
the  extra  dimensions  of  timbers  necessary  owing  to  the  placing  of 
the  control  levers  and  springs,  so  that,  summing  it  all  up,  there  is 
little  chance  of  the  framing  of  a  motor  body,  although  it  is  well 
supported,  being  made  lighter  than  a  horse  carriage  of  even  similar 
capacity,  unless  comfort  and  convenience  are  considerably  curtailed. 

Pattern  Making. — The  first  operation  in  building  a  body  is  to 
make  the  patterns.  These  are  made  in  pine  or  birch,  while 
mahogany  is  useful  if  they  are  to  be  retained  for  extended  further 
service.  The  piece  of  timber  is  laid  under  the  full  size  drawing, 
and  the  outline  of  the  desired  pillar  or  rail  pricked  through  with 
the  scriber  or  other  tool.  On  the  pattern  is  marked  the  thickness 
of  the  stuff,  and  the  number  of  identical  pieces  required.  The 
standing  and  door  pillars  are  also  marked  out  from  the  turnunder 
pattern,  which  is  their  sectional  shape,  while  pieces  such  as  the 
elbow,  fence  rail,  and  other  parts  of  the  side  framing  are  marked 
out  as  if  flat,  and  in  a  suitable  substance  of  plank  corresponding  to 
their  greatest  thickness,  the  rail  being  afterwards  shaped  off  by 
means  of  the  hollow  side  sweep. 

Marking  out  the  Stuff. — In  a  large  shop,  after  the  patterns  have 
been  made,  the  body  maker  does  not  see  the  framing  again  until  it 
is  all  planed  and  grooved,  with  joints  formed,  holes  bored,  and  other 
processes  completed,  so  that  he  has  little  to  do  but  to  fit  and  fix  the 
various  members  together.  In  the  majority  of  shops,  however,  the 
body  maker  is  responsible  for  marking  out  the  stuff  on  the  plank, 
and  in  so  doing  he  can  show  no  little  skill,  in  wasting  as  little  of 
the  timber  as  possible,  as  well  as  utilizing  the  natural  direction  of 
the  grain  of  the  wood,  in  order  to  get  the  utmost  strength  for  the 
individual  pieces.  With  his  patterns  before  him  he  will  separate 
them  into  sets  requiring  the  same  thickness  of  plank,  and  arrange 
them  on  the  timber  so  that  outlines  lie  together  as  closely  as 
possible,  being  careful  to  dodge  all  knots  and  other  imperfections, 

G 


82 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


and  it  is  a  simple  precaution  to  turn  the  plank  over  and  examine  it 
before  marking  out  on  the  other  side.  The  body  maker  takes  for 
granted  that  the  plank  he  is  allowed  to  use  is  seasoned,  otherwise 
the  resulting  framework  will  not  only  shrink,  even  before  it  leaves 
the  factory,  but  a  weaker  structure  will  result,  and  blemishes  will 
be  set  up  in  the  paint  work.  In  marking  out,  it  is  useful  to  look  at 
the  end  of  the  plank,  so  that  its  former  position  in  the  log  may  be 
ascertained,  because  timber  tends  to  shrink  towards  the  bark,  and 
away  from  the  heart,  and  in  marking  out  a  door  pillar  it  is  an 
advantage,  if  the  timber  is  to  shrink  ever  so  slightly  after  the  body 
is  in  service,  that  it  should  tend  to  bring  the  pillar  in  at  the  top 
and  bottom,  which  means,  that  under  the  influence  of  the  holding 
of  a  well  fitting  lock  in  the  centre,  the  door  will  close  tightly  along 
its  whole  depth.  If,  however,  the  pillar  casts  in  the  opposite 
direction  there  is  nothing  to  counteract  the  defect. 

In  marking  out  due  allowance  has  to  be  made  for,  say,  the  extra 
length  of  a  tenon  or  lap,  and  the  greater  substance  a  pillar  or  rail 
will  develop  by  reason  of  a  bevel  being  present  such  as  is  exhibited 
on  the  cant  board. 

Wood-working  Machinery . — Where  there  is  a  sawmill  the  band 
saw  cuts  out  the  shape  of  the  pieces  from  the  plank,  an  experienced 
sawyer  working  well  up  to  the  outline  marked  out,  so  that  subse¬ 
quent  operations  are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Where  two  surfaces 
are  not  at  a  right  angle,  the  table  of  the  saw  can  be  tilted  to  suit 
these  conditions.  The  circular  saw  is  useful  for  straight  work, 
a  face  side  can  be  given  on  the  overhand  planing  machine,  while  it 
can  be  dressed  to  gauge  by  running  the  timber  under  in  the  thick- 
nesser.  The  spindle  machine  dresses  up  the  stuff  on  the  sweep, 
while  boring  and  mortising  is  done  on  various  types  of  wood-work¬ 
ing  machinery  fitted  with  a  variety  of  drills.  By  means  of  special 
knives  fitted  to  the  spindle  machine,  mouldings  and  other  types  of 
raised  work  and  depressions  can  be  formed,  according  to  the  pattern 
of  knife  used. 

Seasoning  Pillars  and  Hails. — It  is  an  advantage  if  all  the 
framing  can  be  cut  out  to  its  approximate  shape,  and  then  stored  in 
a  warm  place  for  a  month  or  two,  a  plan  which  can  be  carried  out 
with  pillars  and  rails  which  conform,  more  or  less,  to  a  standard, 
but  it  is  a  method  which  does  not  by  any  means  appeal  to  the 


MOTOR  BODY  MAKING 


83 


builder  with  no  capital  to  outlay  in  this  direction,  or  where  a  new 
shape  of  body  calls  for  several  pieces  of  stuff  of  unusual  shape.  It 
would,  therefore,  appear  to  be  a  wise  plan  if  carriage  builders  would 
lay  out  their  plans  for  body  designs  some  time  in  advance  of  their 
actual  construction,  or  at  least,  from  an  assembly  of  patterns  used 
in  the  shop,  determine  various  shapes  of  pillars  and  rails,  which  by 
a  small  allowance  will  make  up  into  a  fairly  wide  range  of  bodies, 
even  taking  into  account  the  differences  of  chassis  dimensions.  A 
motor  body  builder  is  more  likely  to  make  his  reputation  by  the 
faultless  character  of  the  framing  after  a  year  or  two’s  wear  rather 
than  by  striving  after  novel  outlines  built  of  partly  seasoned  timber. 
It  is  seldom  that  a  body  maker  builds  a  body  unaided ;  often  a 
man  and  his  mate  take  a  body  between  them,  while  an  experienced 
piece-man  will  have  three  or  four  on  a  job,  and  apportion  out  the 
work  according  to  the  experience  of  those  under  him. 

The  Face  Side. — The  horrors  of  “jacking  up  ”  the  stuff,  that  is, 
getting  the  stuff  into  shape  and  a  face  side  on  the  timber  with  the 
jack  plane,  is  much  a  matter  of  the  past  for  the  apprentice,  now 
that  the  sawmill  whips  off  the  necessary  shavings  in  a  very  short 
time.  Still  there  is  plenty  of  occasion,  even  now,  for  accurate 
facing,  for  it  is  not  always  economical  to  be  running  to  the  saw¬ 
mill,  and  timber  often  twists  slightly  after  leaving  the  machine. 
The  face  side  must  be  accurate,  and  pass  the  eye  test  with  the 
winding  sticks  and  straight  edge,  because  from  it  the  other  sides 
are  formed  whether  on  the  bevel  or  at  right  angles,  and  a  true  edge 
is  also  required  so  that  joints  can  be  scribed  with  precision. 

Joints. — The  joints  used  are  the  various  modifications  of  the 
mortice  and  tenon,  and  lap  joint.  The  theory  underlying  their  use 
is  that  the  pieces  joined  shall  be  weakened  as  little  as  possible,  both 
in  the  design  of  the  joint  and  its  method  of  fastening,  that  the 
bearing  surfaces  shall  be  as  nearly  as  possible  perpendicular  to  the 
direction  of  the  greatest  strain,  and  that  they  shall  be  as  simple  as 
possible.  Seasoned  timber  is  again  essential  for  well-fitting  joints, 
as  should  a  tenon  shrink  in  a  mortice  it  loses  a  great  deal  of  its 
proper  bearing  surface,  and  results  in  as  faulty  a  structure  as  if  the 
joint  were  unskilfully  made  in  the  first  instance. 

The  mortice  and  tenon  is  used  at  the  junction  of  the  standing 
pillars  and  cant  rail,  while  stub  tenons,  that  is,  where  the  mortice 


84 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


is  blind  or  not  carried  through,  are  useful  in  framing  the  waist  rail 
into  the  door  pillars,  thereby  allowing  an  end  fixing  by  means  of 
screws.  The  half-lap  is  gaining  in  favour,  and  it  is  found  a  con¬ 
venient  joint  in  many  parts  of  the  framing,  since  it  gives  greater 
freedom  in  building  up,  and  it  is  easier  to  judge  whether  the  surfaces 
of  the  joint  are  bearing  properly  all  over.  The  half-lap  is  also 
widely  used  in  building  up  the  seat  panel  framing  of  side  entrance 
phaetons  and  closed  bodies.  Hoopsticks  are  notched  into  the  cant 
rail,  so  that  the  ends  of  these  thin  rails  shall  be  weakened  as  little 
as  possible,  while  the  cant  rail  is  left  sufficiently  wide  to  allow  for 
the  notches  being  cut  without  unduly  weakening  it. 

The  floor  boards  are  rabbeted  into  the  bottom  runners  so  as  to 
give  them  an  end  bearing,  which  is  usually  the  full  depth  of  the 
board,  and  are  left  loose  where  inspection  of  the  chassis  is  required. 
Rabbeting  is  also  used  to  provide  a  shutting  ledge  as  between  the 
door  and  the  standing  pillars,  cant  rail,  and  bottom  side,  although 
this  may  not  be  carried  out  on  both  pillars  or  bottom  side  in  cheap, 
side-entrance  body  work.  A  body  is  framed  up  so  as  to  hide  all 
joints  as  much  as  possible,  therefore  wood  pins  are  not  used  to 
draw  up  a  tenon  if  they  will  show  from  the  outside  when  the  job  is 
finished.  If  screws  are  used  for  a  fastening  from  the  outside,  they 
will  be  let  well  in,  and  afterwards  covered  with  wooden  plugs  with 
grain  to  match  the  surrounding  timber.  Panel  pins  are  driven 
below  the  surface,  so  that  the  small  holes  formed  can  be  stopped  up 
in  the  preliminary  painting  processes. 

When  a  mortice  is  fastened  with  an  oak  pin,  a  hole  is  bored 
through  both  sides  of  the  mortice  and  a  corresponding  one  in  the 
tenon,  but  this  one  is  half  the  width  of  the  hole  nearer  the  shoulder 
of  the  joint.  The  two  parts  are  then  driven  together  and  a  tapered 
iron  drift  pin  hammered  in,  which  effectually  draws  up  the  tenon 
tightly  when  right  home.  The  wood  pin  is  then  inserted  and  the 
end  cleaned  off  flush.  In  some  parts  of  the  body  a  preference  is 
shown  by  some  body  makers  for  the  use  of  a  haunched  tenon. 
Advantages  claimed  are  greater  strength,  especially  if  the  main 
portion  of  the  tenon  is  made  a  little  thinner,  and  water  is  less  likely 
to  get  in,  but  in  the  absence  of  actual  tests  this  theory  is  open  to 
question.  A  double  tenon  is  sometimes  used  when  it  is  thought 
that  a  large  mortice  would  unduly  weaken  the  stuff.  The  lap  and 


MOTOR  BODY  MAKING 


85 


tenon  joint  is  considered  of  service,  especially  if  the  tenon  is  a  stab 
and  the  end  grain  of  the  lap  can  be  hidden.  There  is  no  record 
available  where  body  framing  has  deteriorated  in  service  because 
all  the  joints  were  made  of  simple  half-laps  and  plain  mortices  and 
tenons,  and  it  would  seem  to  be  largely  a  waste  of  time  and  labour 
to  devise  ingenious  double-haunched  tenons  and  combinations  of 
laps  and  tenons,  which  are  difficult  to  fit  on  all  their  abutting 
surfaces,  unless  one  is  fully  convinced  that  such  a  procedure  makes 
a  better  wearing,  body. 

Framing -up. — A  convenient  part  to  start  on,  in  any  motor  body, 
is  the  bottom  framing.  The  body  maker  will  usually  prefer  to  fit 
the  bottom  runner  on  the  actual  chassis  to  be  used,  especially  if  it 
is  carved  in  profile,  and  has  three-quarter  elliptic  springs  at  the 
back.  If  there  are  any  bolt-heads,  or  other  projections,  on  the  top 
flange  of  the  chassis,  instead  of  gouging  out  the  underside  of  the 
runner  he  may  prefer  to  fit  a  thin  filling-up  piece  first,  so  as  to 
give  a  smoother  bearing.  The  bottom  runners  are  usually  framed 
with  cross  bars  (which  are  also  rabbeted  for  the  floor  boards)  wide 
enough  to  overhang  the  chassis  even  at  the  narrowest  point,  as  this 
prevents  the  junction  of  body  and  chassis  being  visible  under 
ordinary  circumstances.  The  hind  cross  rail  is  usually  framed  in 
with  some  variety  of  tenon,  and  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  due 
provision  is  made  for  getting  at  the  petrol  tank,  if  it  is  slung  at 
the  rear,  and  it  may  happen  also  that  the  side  framing  will  have 
to  be  neatly  fitted  round  a  projecting  spring  bracket.  The  body 
maker  will  be  able  to  see  now  if  the  floorboards  will  properly  clear 
the  differential  casing  on  the  back  axle,  or  any  part  of  the  mechanism 
which  stands  up  above  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  chassis.  Other 
cross  rails,  two  or  three  in  number,  will  be  required,  according  to  the 
length  of  the  body,  and  their  exact  position  will  depend  partly  on 
the  setting  out  of  the  engine  transmission,  and  also  on  the  design 
of  the  body.  A  cross  rail  at  the  foot  of  the  hind  standing  pillar  will 
be  required,  in  order  to  take  the  fixing  of  a  body-plate,  which  will 
run  up  the  corresponding  pillar  on  each  side,  and  across  the  rail  at 
their  feet.  This  often  is  the  main  strengthening  device  in  an  open 
body  in  order  to  tie  the  two  sides  of  the  body  together  in  the  centre. 
Before  the  bottom  is  framed  up,  there  is  the  consideration  as  to 
whether  the  rocker  or  boot  sides  below  the  seat-line  shall  be  framed 


86 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


and  panelled,  or  made  in  the  solid.  One  process  makes  a  lighter 
yet  more  expensive  job,  but  the  unframed  method  is  that  usually 
adopted  both  for  cheap  and  high-class  work.  If  panelling  is  under¬ 
taken  short  pillars  will  be  tenoned  into  the  runner  at  the  proper 
angle,  so  that  the  panel,  when  it  bears  upon  them,  will  have  the 
proper  sail  as  indicated  in  the  drawing.  The  framing  will  generally 
lie  flush  with  the  runner,  so  that  the  panel  can  be  laid  on  overall 
to  the  base  line  of  the  runner. 

Wood  Panelling. — Panelling  is  chiefly  carried  out  in  mahogany, 
the  Honduras  variety  being  specified  for  good  work,  but  owing  to 
its  scarcity,  much  timber  is  now  used,  coming  from  the  same  latitude 
in  West  Africa,  which,  if  well  selected,  provides  a  good  painting 
surface.  Wood  panels  in  old-fashioned,  well-built  horse  carriages 
were  largely  retained  in  position  by  grooves  made  in  the  framing,  in 
which  also  the  mouldings  were  formed  in  the  solid.  This  method 
demands  increased  skill  from  the  body  maker,  not  only  in  forming 
his  grooves  accurately  with  the  router,  but  in  driving  the  panel 
home,  and  according  to  the  varying  widths  of  the  panel  so  its 
direction  of  being  placed  in  position  has  to  be  judged.  In  driving 
seats  of  closed  bodies,  and  in  square-cornered  landaulettes,  examples 
of  grooving  are  still  met  with,  but  the  present-day  tendency  is  for 
panels  merely  to  be  laid  on,  and  metal  mouldings  afterwards  planted 
on.  Laying  a  panel  on  instead  of  driving  it  into  a  groove  endways 
means  more  freedom  in  working,  less  restrictions  in  constructional 
design,  greater  ease  of  repair,  less  strain  on  the  various  parts,  and 
less  liability  to  the  harbouring  of  dampness,  which  of  course  sets 
up  rotting.  Cedar  and  whitewood  are  also  used  for  panelling. 

Framed  and  Solid  Sides.— Reverting  to  the  building  up  of  the 
bottom  frame,  if  the  job  is  not  to  be  panelled,  the  solid  side  is 
got  out  of  American  birch,  which  is  often  purchased  in  a  pre¬ 
pared  condition.  This  is  screwed  to  the  runner  from  the  out¬ 
side,  battened  on  the  inside  to  resist  warping,  and  forms  a  good 
foundation  on  which  to  build  up  the  standing  pillars  and  their 
bottom  side,  and  in  an  open  body  the  piece  in  the  doorway  is  often 
afterwards  cut  out.  The  solid  side  requires  that  the  body  at  this 
part  shall  be  straight  throughout,  and  if  extra  width  is  wanted  at 
the  hind  standing  pillars,  a  wedge-piece  must  be  inserted.  The 
framed  side,  however,  has  the  advantage  that  it  can  be  made  to  suit 


MOTOR  BODY  MAKING 


87 


exactly  the  design  of  body  planned  out.  If  more  width  is  required 
at  the  foot  of  the  pillars  this  can  be  done  by  malting  the  runner- 
wedge-shaped  at  the  outside  and  contracting  it  again  under  those 
parts  where  there  is  no  need  for  the  extra  dimension. 

While  the  bottom  of  the  body  is  thus  being  made,  the  doors  will 
be  undergoing  framing  up  at  another  bench,  while  possibly  a  thiid 
body  maker  will  be  getting  out  the  elbows  and  other  rails  so  as  to  be 
in  readiness  when  the  body  is  put  together. 

In  a  limousine,  the  various  parts  of  the  main  framework  are 
planed  up  to  their  required  size,  the  joints  formed,  and  then  each 
side  of  the  body  is  put  together  separately  before  each  part  is  finally 
boxed  out,  rabbeted,  and  grooved,  so  as  to  justify  their  general 
accuracy  with  regard  to  the  side  sweep.  The  standing  pillars  and 
bottom  side  are  then  offered  up  to  the  bottom  framework  already 
constructed,  and  screwed  from  the  inside,  after  which  the  seat 
framing  is  fixed  so  that  the  light  pillars  can  be  attached.  The  front 
and  back  framing  is  then  got  on  with,  while  as  the  erection  proceeds, 
the  body  maker  is  careful  to  ascertain  that  each  side  is  shaped  alike, 
and  that  various  parts  are  quite  square,  true  to  sweep,  and  dimension 
given,  and  so  on.  While  a  body  is  in  course  of  erection  wooden 
stretchers  are  fixed  across  at  two  or  three  points,  so  that  the 
framing  is  held  together  firmly  in  the  absence  of  the  rails  yet  to  be 
framed  in,  which  will  hold  all  together  rigidly  and  finally. 

In  framing  on,  say  a  cant  rail,  the  body  maker  has  to  test  as  to 
whether  it  is  lying  horizontally,  and  if  not,  it  will  necessitate  taking 
a  little  off  one  or  more  shoulders  of  the  tenons.  If  the  body  is  to 
have  metal  panels,  it  will  be  transferred  temporarily  to  another 
department,  during  which  period  the  doors  will  be  brought  to  a  finish, 
having  been  first  framed  together  and  then  taken  apart  and  the 
grooves  and  wastings  formed,  while  the  driving  seat  and  probably  a 
hind  locker  door  and  a  pair  of  front  doors  got  forward  with. 

Coach  Joinery. — Glass  frames  are  now  made  of  mahogany, 
tenoned  together,  the  oak  frame  having  gone  out  of  use  except  when 
they  are  specially  ordered  to  be  covered  in  cloth.  These  frames, 
and  also  the  heel  boards  and  half-round  fillets  for  finishing  off  the 
inside  of  the  lights,  are  usually  made  by  a  coach  joiner,  whose  work 
is  confined  practically  to  what  may  be  termed  the  cabinet-making 
side  of  carriage  building.  He  will  also,  if  a  skilled  worker,  make 


88 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


any  actual  cabinet  work,  such  as  is  formed  in  the  luxurious  bodies 
of  to-day. 

The  fence,  waist,  or  middle  door  rail,  if  more  than  5  ins.  deep, 
may  be  two  separate  rails  panelled  over.  More  often  it  is  a  solid 
lz-in.  piece  of  ash.  On  the  top  it  provides  a  bearing  for  the  glass 
frame  when  up,  and  to  the  back  is  screwed  a  strip  of  metal  or  fence 
plate  which  keeps  the  frame  from  slipping  backwards  after  it  has 
been  lifted  over  the  fence,  while  the  shape  of  the  run  in  the  door 
pillars  prevents  its  forward  movement.  Below  the  fence  is  the 
wasting,  which  is  a  lightening  out  or  rebate  adopted  all  round  the 
light,  and  therefore  is  found  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  door  pillars, 
and  on  the  bottom  of  the  door  top.  The  front  surface  of  the  door 
rails  conforms  to  the  side  sweep  of  the  body,  while  the  door  top  is 
open  at  the  top  so  that  the  glass  frame  can  be  inserted  and  with¬ 
drawn.  In  a  limousine  the  hind  standing  pillar  has  a  glass  run 
formed  in  it,  so  that  the  side  light  may  be  lowered,  and  usually  the 
substance  of  this  pillar  is  kept  the  same  measurement  of  2  ins.  as 
the  door  pillar,  so  that  neither  pillar  has  any  tendency  to  be  the 
more  prominent,  although,  below,  the  standing  pillar  is  increased  to 
about  2  j  ins.  to  withstand  the  extra  weight  and  strain  which  has  to 
be  borne.  The  side  light  has  its  other  run  in  a  special  light  pillar 
which  is  framed  in  for  that  purpose,  and  whatever  shape  the  light 
may  be,  the  standing  and  light  pillars  must  provide  a  pair  of  runs 
which  shall  be  absolutely  straight  and  parallel,  otherwise  the  frame 
will  either  bind  or  rattle. 

This  light  pillar  is  framed  into  the  cant  rail  similarly  to  the 
standing  pillars  and  will  be  checked  or  notched  into  the  seat  frame. 

Door  Hinges ,  Locks ,  and  Dovetails. — The  hanging  of  doors  re¬ 
quires  considerable  experience,  which  gives  the  workman  the  neces¬ 
sary  judgment  in  order  that  he  may  readily  adjust  any  faults  which 
arise  when  testing  the  shutting  of  the  door.  As  the  door  has  a 
turnunder,  and  it  is  desirable  for  it  to  open  square,  a  line  passing 
through  the  hinge  pin  centres  must  be  vertical,  and  all  pin  axes 
lie  exactly  in  the  same  line.  Various  types  of  hinges  are  marketed, 
some  having  cranks  so  that  the  door  will  throw  well  out  so  as  to 
clear  a  closely  fitted  wing  or  to  give  the  full  benefit  of  the  width  of 
the  door  opening,  instead  of  the  thickness  of  the  door  detracting 
from  the  available  entrance.  The  concealed  hinge,  which  has  gone 


MOTOR  BODY  MAKING 


89 


out  of  fashion,  is  a  type  in  which  the  mechanism  is  let  into  the 
body  of  the  pillar,  and  nothing  is  visible  when  the  door  is  shut ;  this 
pattern  requires  a  certain  dimension  of  pillar  for  its  introduction,  and 
often  the  pillar  is  nearly  severed  at  the  hinge  position.  When  there 
is,  say,  a  6-in.  turnunder,  it  would  be  inartistic  to  fit  a  large  butt 
hinge,  so  that  an  outrigger  of  wrought-iron  is  utilized,  which  is 
brought  out  so  that  the  turning  centre  conforms  to  the  pin  line  of 
the  upper  hinges,  while  long  flaps  are  provided,  one  of  which  is 
screwed  to  the  door  bottom  and  the  other  to  the  pillar  and  bottom 
side. 

The  door  lock  is  a  factor  in  maintaining  the  effective  working  of 
the  door.  It  is  a  slam  lock  (really  a  latch)  provided  with  a  long  top 
lever,  which  by  passing  through  a  convenient  slot  in  the  garnish 
rail,  allows  the  door  to  be  easily  opened  from  the  inside,  or  the 
inside  handle  may  be  fitted  directly  to  the  same  centre  as  the  out¬ 
side  handle.  The  wearing  of  the  bolt  of  the  lock  is  taken  by  a  gun- 
metal  striking  plate,  and  as  this  wears  so  the  door  consequently 
loses  its  tightness,  and  commences  to  rattle,  unless  a  well-made 
adjustable  plate  is  used.  The  door  is  also  kept  in  its  proper  position 
by  means  of  metal  dovetails,  the  male  portion  of  which  is  fitted  to 
the  door  and  the  other  part  to  the  standing  pillar.  One  or  two  may 
be  fitted  well  above  and  below  the  lock,  and  as  an  extra  precaution 
also  on  the  door  bottom.  These  wear  in  time  like  the  striking  plate, 

unless  wear  is  allowed  for  by  adjustment. 

Folding  Head  Ironwork. — In  landaulettes  there  are  various  hinges 
and  catches  to  fit  which  make  up  the  mechanism  of  the  folding 
head,  and  the  introduction  of  landaulettes  with  long  quarters,  and 
various  types  of  cabriolets,  has  brought  many  fresh  patterns  befoie 
the  motor-body  builder.  The  number  of  hinges  fitted  will  vary 
according  to  the  extent  of  folding  required.  If  the  front  pillars 
fold,  there  will  be  a  pair  of  hinges  to  let  in  so  that  the  pillar  top 
may  fold  above  the  fence  line,  and  if  the  body  is  well  finished  a  brass 
plate  will  be  screwed  on  the  end  grain  to  make  a  good  job.  Then 
the  front  top  rail  will  be  attached  only  to  the  cant  rails,  and  fastened, 
when  the  head  is  shut,  by  means  of  a  pair  of  pillar  catches.  There 
will  be  a  centre  hinge  if  the  cant  rail  itself  folds  so  as  to  foie- 
shorten  the  head ;  while  the  pillar  hinge  will  require  a  strong  flap 
well  screwed  to  the  back  of  the  pillar  top,  and  along  the  top  of 


90 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


the  elbow.  The  head,  when  down,  will  lie  on  a  pair  of  body  props, 
well  flapped  and  screwed  to  the  elbow  and  hind  rail.  When  the 
pillars  fold  the  glass  frame  will  be  provided  with  an  extension  of  its 
glass  run  hinged  at  the  cut  of  the  pillar.  These  fittings  are  known 
as  glass  frame  supports,  and  when  the  head  is  up  these  are  recessed 
into  the  pillar  top  above,  which  means,  if  a  good  job  is  to  be  made 
of  it,  that  the  wastings  must  be  made  larger  than  usual,  so  as  to 
accommodate  the  supports  without  unduly  breaking  the  lines  of 
the  door. 

Panel  Canvasing  and  Blocking. — Panels  are  maintained  in  contour 
by  the  provision  of  battens  which  lie  close  up  against  the  back  of 
the  panel,  and  may  be  placed  either  longitudinally  or  transversely, 
according  to  taste.  Wood  panels  are  strengthened  by  being  can¬ 
vassed  on  the  cleaned  yet  unplaned  back,  while,  at  the  junction  of 
a  rail  or  batten,  small  blocks  are  glued  on,  which  also  increase  the 
rigidity  of  the  panel  fixing,  a  plan  which  is  carried  to  great  extremes 
by  some  builders,  who  consider  it  necessary  to  fill  up  the  whole 
available  inside  surface  of  the  panel  with  wood  blocks.  A  similar 
process  is  carried  out  with  the  roof,  which  may  be  in  one  piece  of 
three-ply,  but  if  it  is  made  up  with  boards,  these  should  lie  longi¬ 
tudinally,  and  be  as  narrow  as  possible,  consistent  with  economy  in 
labour,  as  there  is  less  liability  to  contraction  at  the  joints,  while 
the  centre  board  is  made  slightly  wedge-shaped  so  as  to  make  a 
tight  job.  Door  bottoms  are  bored  on  the  underside  so  that  any 
water  getting  into  the  door  casing  may  have  some  chance  of  escaping, 
a  very  necessary  precaution  if  a  frameless  light  is  used  which  slides 
in  a  velvet-lined  metal  run,  and  does  not  shed  the  water  so  easily 
as  the  more  common  pattern.  Joints  are  driven  with  white  lead 
so  that  the  surfaces  are  well  preserved  and  held,  and  screws  are 
inevitably  used  throughout,  except  in  such  positions  as  the  fixing 
of  a  panel  or  roof  board.  In  order  to  provide  a  foundation  for  the 
trimmer’s  work,  the  lining  boards  of  the  doors  and  front  are  of  good 
^-in.  birch,  while  various  trimming  pieces  will  be  provided  at  the 
sides  and  back  of  the  body  for  fixing  the  other  portions  of  the 
lining. 

The  body  is  bolted  to  the  chassis  by  bolts  passing  downwards 
through  the  runners  and  the  flanges  of  the  chassis,  unless  special 
brackets  are  provided  for  the  purpose,  as  in  the  Daimler  chassis. 


MOTOR  BODY  MAKING 


91 


Regarding  further  details,  if  an  extension  roof  canopy  is  pro¬ 
vided  to  the  driving  seat,  this  will  be  framed  with  a  heavier  rail 
immediately  over  the  dashboard,  so  that  the  upper  half  of  the  wind 
screen  may  be  attached  if  it  hinges  from  the  top.  Some  form  of 
splice  will  be  necessary  to  joint  up  the  side  canopy  rails  with  theii 
front  rail,  which  will  be  kept  flat  and  not  conform  to  the  rise  in  the 
roof,  as  it  is  generally  considered  that  a  piece  of  framing  which  is 
curved  at  the  corners  in  plan,  and  rises  in  the  centre  in  elevation, 
gives  a  ram’s  horn  style  of  decoration,  which,  to  say  the  least,  is 
not  restful  to  the  eye,  and  the  same  idea  is  carried  out  with  a  D- 
fronted  body.  If  the  canopy  is  detachable,  then  the  cornice  which 
hides  the  join  of  the  roof  canvas  or  moleskin  will  not  run  along 
the  side  of  the  canopy,  but  turn  and  proceed  across  the  front  top 
rail,  while  a  separate  piece  is  fitted  to  the  canopy.  The  wooden 
cornice  will  have  to  be  eased  round  the  sharp  corner  in  fiont  by 
gently  steaming  it,  and  making  a  few  saw  cuts  on  the  inside, 
and  similarly  at  the  rear,  if  it  is  continued  round  the  back  of 
the  body. 

Bent  Timber.— Bent  timber  is  not  so  much  used  in  motor  bodies 
as  in  carriages.  Examples  of  its  use  are  the  of  limousines 

and  landaulettes,  and  sometimes  the  elbow  and  back  rails  of  open 
cars.  Straight-backed  seat  panels  are  also  occasionally  made  in 

this  way. 

Open  Body  Construction—  In  the  modern  style  of  open  body, 
with  all  its  outside  panelling  reaching  down  to  the  chassis,  the 
vertical  members  of  the  framing  are  jointed  directly  into  the  bottom 
runner.  As  the  runner  is  kept  as  light  as  possible,  the  tenons  at  the 
foot  of  the  standing  pillars  do  not  give  a  great  amount  of  stability, 
bearing  in  mind  that  they  are  not  tied  at  the  top  as  in  a  closed 
body,  so  that  the  use  of  strap  bolts  is  to  be  recommended,  with 
the  plain  end  turned  in. 

In  framing  up  the  elbow  rails  of  open  bodies,  and  also  the 
corresponding  parts  in  a  limousine,  there  is,  unless  bent  timber 
is  used,  a  considerable  amount  of  work  entailed  in  getting  out 
the  curved  portions,  as  the  rail  not  only  rises  in  elevation,  and 
is  bevelled  in  two  directions,  but  it  is  also  curved  in  plan.  Five 
separate  pieces  are  necessary,  and  a  thick  piece  of  stuff  will  be 
required  at  each  corner  in  order  to  form  out  of  the  solid  the 


92 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


necessary  bevelled  and  curved  surfaces.  The  first  portion  in  the 
straight  after  it  leaves  the  pillar  is  simply  got  out  to  the  proper 
dimensions,  and  bevelled  to  correspond  with  the  side  sail ;  the  next 
piece,  which  follows  immediately  after,  has  to  be  got  out  of  thicker 
stuff,  because  the  curve  in  plan  begins  while  the  bevelling  is 
gradually  increased  to  the  additional  amount  which  is  present  at 
the  back.  The  corner  piece  will  require  timber  from  ins.  to  8  ins. 
square,  from  which  the  back  bevel  is  first  taken  off,  and  then  a 
square  line  formed  which  will  correspond  to  the  joint  with  the 
second  piece,  leaving  a  fair  margin  for  final  working  up.  This 
corner  piece  is  then  shaped  to  the  curve  in  plan,  after  which  the 
superfluous  timber  is  dressed  off,  and  the  operation  repeated  on  the 
other  side.  The  operation  may  be  varied  by  glueing  a  piece  on  at 
the  corner  and  shaping  up  when  hard  and  dry. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


MOUNTING 

Comfortable  Driving  Position— Even  if  the  body  maker  builds  the 
body  directly  on  to  the  chassis,  instead  of  on  the  shop  trestles,  the 
body  has  yet  to  be  mounted  in  the  technical  sense.  This  is  usually 
carried  out  in  a  separate  department.  If  the  chassis  has  only  just 
arrived,  the  bottom  runners  have  to  be  justified,  so  that  they  snugly 
fit  all  round.  Sometimes  a  lining  piece  will  be  fitted,  as  already 
mentioned  under  body  making,  or  if  the  rise  in  the  chassis  is  not 
greater  than  two  inches,  the  lining  piece  will  be  bolted  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  chassis  only,  so  that  a  flat  bearing  for  the  body  is 
obtained.  If  the  body  is  to  slide,  this  method  becomes  a  necessity. 
Various  degrees  of  cutting  away  will  proceed  by  the  lever  quadrant, 
the  front  of  the  runners  will  be  fitted  to  any  bracket  piece  supplied, 
so  as  to  join  up  neatly,  and  the  comfort  of  the  steering  wheel  and 
pedals  tested  with  an  old  cushion.  If  the  client  should  call  he  may 
test  his  arm  and  leg  reach  now,  and  the  body  be  slid  along  the 
chassis  a  little  either  way,  if  required,  so  long  as  it  does  not  inteifeie 
unduly  with  the  door  clearance  of  the  hind  wings.  This  opera¬ 
tion  may  entail  a  considerable  amount  of  work  in  modifying  the 
shape  of  the  under  surface  of  the  runner  if  it  has  already  been 
fitted  and  the  frame  has  a  curved  profile,  or  if  it  reveals  the  hind 
cross  member  of  the  chassis.  If  a  canopy  is  fitted  the  rail  above  the 
dashboard  is  tested  to  see  that  it  is  directly  above  the  dashboard. 
Now  that  scuttle  dashes  are  used  so  frequently,  the  mounter  does 
less  work  in  the  front  of  the  body  than  formerly,  for  it  was  not 
unusual  for  him  to  hang  the  front  doors  from  a  piece  of  ash  screwed 
or  bolted  to  the  dashboard,  and  build  up  round  the  dashboard  as 
required,  in  order  to  fit  the  bottom  portion  of  the  wind  screen.  If 
the  tank  is  situated  under  the  front  seat,  the  necessary  clearances 
have  to  be  watched,  and  if  a  special  tank  is  being  made  in  the 


94 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


metal  department,  he  will  probably  fit  it  and  bore  any  necessary 
hole  for  the  filler.  It  is  his  duty  to  fit  the  canopy  stanchions,  and 
bolt  the  sockets  on,  and  he  marks  the  frame  where  the  step  stays 
are  to  be  bolted  on.  In  drilling  the  frame  for  these  and  the  holding 
down  bolts  of  the  body  it  is  a  great  convenience  if  a  portable  electric 
drill  is  provided,-  or  one  driven  through  a  flexible  shaft,  as  the  boring 
by  a  hand  ratchet  drill  is  very  laborious,  and  often  requires  an  extra 
man  to  assist,  especially  when  the  web  of  the  frame  is  being  drilled. 

Fitting  Wings  and  Long  Side  Steps. — The  long  side  steps  are  then 
got  out,  usually  the  full  width  of  the  wings,  so  that  the  front  edge 
is  3  ins.  in  front  of  the  tyres,  and  bolted  temporarily  to  the  stays, 
so  that  the  wings,  which  have  meanwhile  been  made  in  the  metal 
department,  or  obtained  from  a  factory  where  a  speciality  is  made 
of  these  goods,  can  be  cramped  on  in  position,  and  the  positions 
marked  for  the  wing  stays  with  their  bolt  holes.  Sometimes  the 
step  is  swelled  out  by  the  main  entrance  so  as  to  give  a  wider  tread. 
The  front  wing  stays  should  be  fitted  to  sockets  bolted  to  the  frame, 
so  that  they  may  be  easily  removed  when  overhauling  the  engine, 
while  the  flaps,  in  all  cases,  should  not  merely  hold  the  wing,  but 
pass  under  it  both  longitudinally  and  transversely,  so  that  the  free 
ends  do  not  vibrate  unduly  and  break  away  at  the  bolt  holes.  The 
hind  wing  stays  are  often  fastened  to  the  chassis  as  well  as  the 
body,  and  it  seldom  happens  that,  when  it  becomes  necessary  to 
dismount  the  body,  it  can  be  carried  out  without  detaching  the  hind 
wings. 

The  inner  ends  of  the  front  wings  are  usually  bolted  to  the  ends 
of  the  step  board  underneath,  and  if  side  guards  are  used  these  have 
to  be  fitted  to  the  chassis,  and  if  of  metal  will  be  made,  as  a  rule, 
in  one  piece  with  the  wing.  The  inner  end  of  the  hind  wing  is 
usually  fastened  to  the  step  by  an  angle  plate  finished  to  match  the 
step  edging. 

The  wings  are  then  detached  with  the  flaps  attached  and  sent 
into  the  paint  shop,  while  the  step  boards  will  go  into  the  metal 
department  to  be  fitted  with  their  brass  or  nickel  angle  plate,  which 
is  soldered  at  the  corners,  and  an  angle  piece  provided  for  attaching 
the  hind  wing.  The  made-up  piece  of  angle  plate,  after  polishing,  is 
ready  for  screwing  to  the  stepboard  after  it  has  been  given  a  coat  of 
paint  underneath,  and  covered  with  the  usual  rubber  or  aluminium 


MOUNTING 


95 


matting,  or  linoleum.  Before  this  is  laid  on,  however,  the  wood 
countersunk  bolts  are  dropped  in  for  attachment  to  the  step  stays. 

Step  Lockers.— The  step  boards  may  be  fitted  up  with  lockers  or 
drawers,  while  the  top  may  form  a  series  of  lids,  or,  as  is  often 
done,  a  metal  well,  with  one  or  two  holes  provided  to  let  out  the 
wet,  is  furnished  on  the  offside  to  carry  the  spare  tyre,  detachable 
rim,  or  wheel.  When  lockers  are  formed  in  the  step,  it  is  advisable 
to  make  the  lid  in  two  pieces,  otherwise  it  will  be  very  heavy,  and 
handles  may  conveniently  be  screwed  on  the  front  edge.  The 
locker  itself  is  best  lined  in  sheet  zinc  with,  say,  a  three-quarter 
inch  lip  standing  up,  into  which  the  lid  recesses,  thereby  making  as 
circuitous  a  path  as  possible  for  the  water.  If  such  a  locker  is  con¬ 
sidered  unsightly  the  front  of  it  may  be  swept  backwards  so  as  to 
be  invisible  from  the  outside  when  the  observer  is  standing.  Some 
bodies  are  made  to  hinge  from  the  rear  and  have  attached  at  the 
front  on  each  side  a  hinged  metal  strut,  which  may  be  provided 
with  springs  so  as  to  assist  the  body  in  rising. 

The  Coach  Finisher ,  Fitter ,  and  Inspector— In  large  shops  the 
mounter  will  be  responsible  for  making  the  step  boards,  the  final 
fitting  of  the  floor  boards,  marking  the  stays  and  fitting  them  with 
the  wings,  and  also  any  luggage  rail  or  rack  required,  and  he  will 
usually  finally  mount  the  stanchions.  A  separate  workman,  some¬ 
times  called  a  fitter,  takes  over  the  car  when  it  has  left  the  paint  shop, 
and  mounts  the  finished  wings  and  steps,  fits  up  any  gas  piping  or 
wiring  needed  for  the  lamps,  looks  after  tyre  carriers,  and  other  mis¬ 
cellaneous  fittings,  and  puts  on  the  wheels  (sometimes  tyres)  and 
bonnet,  and  fixes  the  luggage  rack  or  carrier,  lamp  brackets,  hooter, 
speedometer,  and  so  on.  The  joiner,  or  may  be  a  finisher,  puts  in  the 
glass  frames,  attaches  their  strings,  mounts  the  wind  shield,  screws 
on  the  filleting  round  the  inside  of  the  lights,  and  may  be  puts  in 
the  door  handles,  and  fits  the  slot  plates  for  the  top  levers  to  work  in. 

The  cape  cart  hood  framework  is  often  made  by  the  mounter 
rather  than  the  body  maker,  and  he  will  finally  bolt  on  the  body 
irons  to  carry  it,  and  attach  it  when  finished  by  the  trimmer. 

The  finished  car,  in  a  large  factory,  has  to  pass  the  scrutiny  of 
an  inspector,  whose  duty  it  is  to  criticize  the  general  completeness 
of  things,  see  that  no  detail  is  missing  or  defect  present,  and 
compare  the  car  and  its  fittings  with  the  accepted  specification. 


CHAPTER  IX 

COMFORT  IN  THE  MOTOR  BODY 

The  Function  of  the  Upholstery—  One  of  the  chief  differences 
between  a  public -service  vehicle  and  a  private  one,  and  between  a 
cheap  and  an  expensive  one,  is  the  luxury  of  the  interior  trimming 
or  upholstery,  and  the  accompanying  degree  of  comfort  to  the 
passenger.  Pneumatic  tyres,  and  the  springs  of  the  chassis,  go 
a  long  way  towards  insulating  the  occupants  of  the  body  fioni 
road  shocks,  but  well-arranged  trimming  further  removes  vibration, 
and  gives  a  soft  and  resilient  seat  as  well  as  a  resting-place  foi 
the  back  and  shoulders,  the  whole  being  also  set  out  with  a  view 
to  decorating  the  interior. 

The  cushions  and  squabs  used  in  trimming  not  only  act  as 
pads  to  keep  the  person  away  from  the  hard  wooden  structure  of  tlje 
body,  but  the  materials  with  which  they  are  built  up  are  chosen 
with  regard  to  their  resilience,  and  shape-retaining  qualities.  Seiies 
of  coiled  springs  form  the  foundation  of  most  trimming  work,  ovei 
which  is  laid  curled  horsehair,  with  a  layer  of  cotton  wool  or  batting 
to  prevent  it  working  through  the  outer  cloth  or  leathei  covering. 

Cushions. — Successful  trimming,  giving  comfortable  seats, 
depends  greatly  on  the  arrangement  of  the  woodwork.  If  a  seat- 
board  has  been  fixed  in  without  any  drop  to  the  rear,  the  trimmer 
may  counteract  it  by  making  his  cushion  thicker  in  front,  but  the 
cushion  will  still  tend  to  slide  off.  If  the  seat  is  properly  sloped 
the  cushion  may  be  of  the  proper  thickness  both  at  front  and  rear. 
The  trimmer  can  easily  raise  the  level  of  the  seat  by  a  thicker 
cushion,  but  he  cannot  lower  it  if  it  has  been  badly  placed  unless 
he  puts  in  a  thin  and  often  hard  cushion.  He  likewise  cannot 
apportion  out  what  head,  knee,  and  leg  room  he  thinks  desirable, 
but  must  take  things  as  he  finds  them.  Occasionally  in  emergencies 


COMFORT  IN  THE  MOTOR  BODY 


97 


the  width  of  a  seat  from  back  to  front  may  be  slightly  increased, 
but  then  again  this  is  probably  at  the  expense  of  knee  room.  It  is 
therefore  important  that  the  design  should  be  well  thought  out 
before  the  trimming  stage  is  reached,  as  little  can  be  corrected  after 
the  body  is  once  framed  together. 

Squabbing . — Apart  from  designing  a  cushion  so  that  it  throws 
the  occupant  naturally  on  to  the  back  squab,  the  squab  itself  must 
be  shaped  without  any  fulness  lengthwise  in  the  centre,  so  that  the 
passenger  is  not  thrown  towards  the  ends  of  the  seat.  The  vertical 
fulness  must  be  constructed  so  that  it  fits  well  into  and  supports 
the  back,  and  must  be  high  enough  to  rest  the  shoulders,  and  if 
desired  the  head  as  well.  Inside  elbows  should  be  low  enough  to 
form  a  comfortable  resting  for  the  forearm,  and  dropped  at  the 
rear  to  follow  the  inclination  of  the  seat.  If  the  hand  is  to  be 
supported  in  a  pillar  holder  it  will  be  hung  at  a  convenient  height 
and  within  easy  reach. 

Apart  from  these  elementary  considerations,  if  cloth  is  used  as 
a  lining  material  it  will  be  cut  out  and  made  up  so  that  the  cloth 
brushes  towards  the  front  of  the  cushion,  and  also  down  the 
sides  and  back ;  pleating  will  not  be  indulged  in  beyond  what  is 
necessary  to  retain  the  stuffing  material  in  proper  position,  any 
excess  being  a  harbourer  of  dust. 

Colour  and  Quality  of  the  Cloth. — From  the  decorative  point  of 
view,  the  colouring  will  follow  the  personal  wishes  of  the  purchaser, 
but  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  indigo  and  some  browns  are  dyes 
which  do  not  impair  the  strength  of  the  cloth,  while  others,  like 
green  and  black,  are  not  so  desirable  from  this  point  of  view. 
Other  colours  will  fade,  while  on  the  other  hand  some  will  not 
show  the  dust  readily.  Durability  is  largely  a  matter  of  price,  the 
best  “West  of  England”  cloth  being  unsurpassed  in  this  direction. 
Cheaper  materials  will  have  varying  mixtures  of  cotton  and  be 
perhaps  piece  dyed  instead  of  being  so  treated  before  weaving. 

Leather. — Leather  is  usually  considered  more  hygienic ;  morocco 
gives  a  luxurious  appearance,  and  is  expensive,  but  it  is  water-dyed 
and  not  suitable  for  an  open  carriage.  Stronger  leathers  such  as 
buffalo  hides,  which  are  painted,  form  one  of  the  chief  materials 
for  side-entrance  phaetons  and  the  driving  seats  of  all  types  of 
bodies. 

H 


98 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


Floor  Comfort. — Comfort  for  the  feet  does  not  always  receive 
that  amount  of  attention  devoted  to  the  ease  of  other  parts  of  the 
body.  The  floor  of  a  body  is  often  quite  flat,  and  where  a  body  has 
been  mounted  on  a  chassis  having  a  rise  at  the  back,  an  awkward 
slope  in  the  body  may  result.  If  the  floor  cannot  be  curved,  a  foot¬ 
stool  should  be  provided,  so  that  the  feet  are  kept  at  about  right 
angles  with  the  legs. 

Where  Padding  is  restricted. — In  trimming  a  body,  the  whole 
width  has  to  be  kept  within  narrow  limits ;  the  side  padding  will  not 
be  as  generous  as  at  the  back  squab,  while  the  treatment  of  doors 
and  the  sides  of  gangways  will  be  flatter  still,  so  as  to  give  an 
artistic  effect  with  the  least  possible  thickness.  Padding  is  not 
always  confined  to  the  position  occupied,  but  it  may  be  seen  used 
above  the  elbow.  This  style  is  not  to  be  recommended,  and  it  must 
be  admitted  that  the  plain  work  above  contrasts  pleasantly  with  that 
below,  and  harbours  less  dust. 

The  use  of  Coach  Laces. — In  the  same  way  that  a  moulding 
defines  the  shape  of  a  panel,  and  often  hides  its  connection  with  the 
framing,  so  the  seaming,  pasting,  and  broad  laces  fulfil  a  similar 
office  with  the  upholstery.  Seaming  lace,  as  its  name  implies,  hides 
the  seams  of  the  work,  and  when  sewn  to  the  edge  of  a  piece  of 
material  provides  a  means  of  fixing  it.  Pasting  lace,  by  means  of 
its  tape  edge,  can  be  fastened  over  any  nail  heads  showing  in  the 
work,  while  the  other  side  is  brought  over  and  pasted,  thereby 
effectually  concealing  all  beneath  it.  The  broad  laces,  which  run 
up  to  8  ins.  wide,  may  be  found  outlining  the  central  portion  of  the 
door  or  as  a  close  edge  lace  forming  a  glass  string  or  pillar  holder, 
in  which  case  they  are  finished  with  a  tassel. 

Unsightly  Glass  Strings. — Glass  strings  are  often  dispensed  with 
when  there  is  a  light  by  the  side  of  a  seat,  as  in  a  large  limousine, 
for  here  it  would  be  in  the  way,  and  a  glass  frog-holder  is  used 
instead.  When  mechanical  devices  have  been  perfected,  or  even 
those  available  better  known  and  appreciated,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  cumbersome  glass  string  to  the  door  and  other  lights  will 
be  seen  no  more,  as  with  its  guard  string  for  preventing  it  wedging 
in  the  glass  run,  it  is  not  a  beautiful  object  when  its  back  has  been 
stiffened  up  with  morocco,  and  always  the  neat  design  of  the  door 
is  spoilt  by  this  curling  arrangement  of  lace  and  string. 


COMFORT  IN  THE  MOTOR  BODY 


99 


The  Importance  of  Comfort  in  a  Motor  Car . — Comfort  in  the 
motor  body  is  of  greater  importance  than  with  a  horse-drawn 
carriage,  chiefly  because  of  the  greater  speed  attained,  the  longer 
journeys  undertaken,  and  since  road  travel  is  indulged  in  more 
freely  because  of  the  increased  capacity  of  the  car.  Therefore, 
though  horse-drawn  broughams  and  landaus  may  have  given  the 
acme  of  comfort  to  their  users  under  more  restricted  conditions, 
one  must  expect  some  difference  made  to  allow  for  the  greater 
utility  of  the  automobile.  Modern  design  in  the  seats  of  motor  cars 
tends  towards  making  them  lower  with  more  rake,  and  the  greater 
dependence  on  coiled  springs  rather  than  horsehair  for  resilience. 
A  slope  of  from  1  in.  to  1J  ins.  should  be  sufficient  to  the  seatboard, 
and  the  cushion,  as  suggested  before,  should  be  parallel,  so  that  it 
can  be  economically  and  simply  built  up.  Opinion  is  divided  as  to 
whether  the  coach  trimmer  should  follow  the  furniture  upholsterer 
closely  with  regard  to  the  somewhat  excessive  springing  indulged  in 
in  the  design  of  sofas  and  lounges.  If  an  equal  amount  of  comfort 
can  be  gained  from  a  5 -in.  cushion  as  from  a  10-in.  cushion,  then 
the  difference  is  so  much  wasted  locker  space,  and  needless  expense 
on  coiled  wire  and  cushion  covering.  As  in  other  departments  of 
motor  construction,  one  has  to  find  a  mean  between  comfort  on  the 
One  hand  and  usefulness  on  the  other ;  and  one  cannot  expect  the 
convenience  of  a  stationary  house  in  a  moving  vehicle. 

Trimming  Accessories. — Apart  from  the  actual  trimming,  there 
are  several  accessories  which  call  for  remark.  Generally  one  or 
two  companions  or  cantines  are  fitted.  These  consist  of  small 
cabinets  attached  to  the  sides  of  the  car  within  easy  reach,  and 
contain  such  items  as  a  note-book,  card  case,  scent  or  salts  bottle, 
and  watch,  while  those  devoted  to  the  needs  of  smokers  have  a 
match  box,  ash  tray,  and  cigar  cutter,  while  the  electric  cigar  lighter 
is  a  separate  fitting.  Umbrella  holders  are  usually  screwed  to  the 
front  lining  boards,  although  this  is  hardly  so  happy  a  position  as 
the  “  sword  case  ”  of  our  great-grandfathers’  chariots.  Mirrors  are 
generally  tucked  away  in  the  lady’s  companion,  but  they  may  be 
fitted  up  to  the  inside  of  the  car  itself,  and  it  is  not  unknown  for 
them  to  be  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  hand  holder.  In  the  roof 
is  often  fitted  a  hat  and  parcel  rack,  consisting  of  a,  network  of  silk 
cord,  but  it  can  hardly  be  classified  as  an  accessory  of  real  service. 


100 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


Cabinet  Work . — Cabinet  work  has  always  been  fashionable.  In 
the  earliest  types  of  bodies,  lockers,  with  cleverly  shaped  curved 
doors  finished  in  polished  woodwork,  were  to  be  found  underneath 
the  two  hind  corner  seats.  Nowadays,  the  whole  of  the  D -front  of 
a  limousine  may  be  given  up  to  one  large,  tall  cabinet,  reaching 
from  floor  to  roof,  replete  with  writing,  toilet,  luncheon,  tea,  and 
medicinal  requisites.  The  folding  polished  table  is  an  accessory 
which  has  always  found  favour,  and  sometimes  these  are  arranged 
to  meet  in  the  centre  of  the  body,  and  fold  down  on  opposite  sides. 
Polished  woodwork  is  used  to  finish  off  the  wastings  of  the  lights, 
while  the  glass  frames,  the  under-surface  of  the  canopy,  the  heel- 
boards,  sometimes  the  inside  of  the  body  above  the  elbow,  and 
outside  tool-boxes  are  also  finished  in  this  way. 

All  these  fittings  should  be  as  unobtrusive  as  possible,  and  if 
they  can  be  let  into  the  framework  of  the  body,  so  much  the  better 
from  the  artistic  point  of  view.  Most  chassis,  being  about  24  ins. 
off  the  ground,  the  planning  out  of  steps  to  the  body,  of  a  suitable 
height,  is  seldom  difficult.  The  long  side  or  platform  step  forms  a 
convenient  and  broad  landing.  The  popularity  of  the  cardan 
drive  car  has  done  away  with  the  drawbacks  of  chain  cases  and 
the  accompanying  awkward  steps.  It  is  not  often  necessary  to 
provide  a  second  step  unless  the  owner  is  an  invalid,  and  has  to  be 
assisted,  otherwise  it  is  liable  to  become  a  source  of  danger. 

Conveniently  placed  Handles. — The  handle  of  the  door  is  placed 
primarily  so  that  it  will  hold  the  door  tightly  between  its  top  and 
bottom  bearings.  In  some  landaulettes,  and  all  phaetons,  this  is 
generally  accomplished  by  keeping  it  high  enough  to  be  within  con¬ 
venient  reach.  The  top  lever  handle  is  a  luxury  generally  found  in 
closed  bodies,  and  if  used  in  an  open  car,  the  usual  outside  handle 
is  hardly  necessary,  and,  in  fact,  has  been  done  away  with  in  some 
Hush-sided  phaetons,  so  as  so  preserve  the  general  neatness 
aimed  at. 

Pockets. — The  pocket  formed  in  the  trimming  still  continues  in 
favour.  If  miade  up  in  the  back  of  the  door,  it  generally  lends  itself 
to  shabbiness ;  on  the  side  of  the  body  in  a  long  car  it  is  perhaps 
in  its  best  position.  In  the  absence  of  folding  seats  on  the  lining 
boards,  a  pair  of  pockets  may  be  placed  there.  The  driving  seat 
side  squabs  are  often  equipped  in  this  manner.  The  motorist  who 


COMFORT  IN  THE  MOTOR  BODY 


ioi 


wishes  to  retain  the  neatness  of  his  car  will  not  favour  this  type  of 
“locker,”  but  will  endeavour  to  keep  small  odds  and  ends  in  a 
drawer  or  tray  of  a  neat  cabinet,  fitted  up  inside  the  car. 

Blinds. — Most  closed  cars  are  fitted  with  blinds,  generally  of 
silk  (lute-string).  They  are  rarely  used  by  the  passengers,  are  a 
source  of  trouble,  especially  with  a  landaulette,  and  should  be 
avoided. 

Ventilation. — Apart  from  cost,  the  chief  advantage  claimed  for 
the  open  phaeton  over  the  limousine  is  the  greater  amount  of  fresh 
air  afforded.  One  is  inclined  to  think,  however,  that  the  alleged 
stuffiness  of  closed  cars,  together  with  the  draughts  created,  is  often 
exaggerated,  and  likewise  the  disadvantage  of  driving  at  a  good  pace 
against  a  fresh  breeze  is  not  always  boldly  stated.  The  whole 
question,  as  between  closed  and  open  cars,  is  a  very  important  one, 
and  every  new  pattern  of  landaulette,  cabriolet,  and  allied  type, 
shows  the  amount  of  activity  which  is  being  directed  towards  the 
solution  of  the  difficulty.  If  one  lowers  all  the  windows  of  a  large 
limousine,  with  perhaps  the  assistance  of  a  roof  ventilator,  it  cannot 
be  said  with  any  great  degree  of  truth  that  the  interior  is  not  well 
supplied  with  fresh  air.  The  chief  drawbacks  to  a  closed  body  are 
weight  and  consequent  wear  of  the  tyres,  and  general  increased  cost 
of  upkeep ;  besides,  the  strictly  limousine  and  landaulette  types  are 
not  considered  self-driving  cars  unless  the  front  is  enclosed,  has  a 
leather  canopy,  or  is  of  a  certain  not  clearly  defined  outline. 

The  purity  of  the  air  in  the  interior  of  a  limousine  depends  on 
the  number  of  occupants,  the  size  of  the  car,  and  the  position  of 
the  entrances  and  exits  for  pure  and  vitiated  air  respectively.  A 
fair-sized  limousine  has  some  88  cubic  feet  of  air  in  it,  which  is 
insufficient  even  for  one  occupant,  unless  the  air  is  continually 
changed.  The  warm,  impure  atmosphere  is  lighter  than  fresh  air, 
consequently  it  tends  to  rise,  so  that  permanent  ventilators  under 
the  cant  rail  are  of  importance  in  this  direction,  while  a  clerestory 
is  the  best  possible  type  of  ventilator  which  can  be  utilized  for  the 
exit  of  air,  and  it  should  be  designed  so  that  incoming  currents 
driven  in  as  the  car  proceeds  do  not  interfere  with  the  object.  Little 
has  been  done  in  private  motor  work  to  ventilate  the  body  without 
dropping  the  lights,  although  it  is  obligatory  in  hackney  carriages, 
licensed  in  London.  Occasionally  the  top  stile  of  a  light  may  be 


102 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


furnished  with  a  ventilator,  and  the  use  of  various  devices  for 
communication  with  the  driver  in  lieu  of  a  speaking  tube  could  be 
made  to  fulfil  this  office.  Roof  torpedo  ventilators  are  sometimes 
seen,  as  used  in  railway  carriage  work. 

Heating.— Closely  allied  to  ventilating  is  heating.  Although  the 
feet  may  be  encased  in  foot  muffs,  and  thick  boots  and  stockings, 
this  method  does  not  appeal  to  many.  The  footwarmer  is  at  last  a 
well-designed  accessory  of  the  car’s  equipment,  and,  as  may  be  sup¬ 
posed,  depends  on  the  exhaust  for  its  heating.  The  brick  heater, 
which  has  been  successfully  used  for  some  years  before  the  days  of 
motoring,  is  also  available. 


CHAPTER  X 


THE  DECORATION  OF  THE  CAR 

The  decoration  of  the  interior  has  already  been  referred  to  in  the 
previous  chapter.  With  the  exterior  one  comes  more  closely  in 
touch  with  the  subject,  as  apart  from  the  necessary  preservation 
afforded  by  the  painting,  the  ultimate  idea  is  to  embellish  the  car 
as  a  whole,  giving  it  a  beautiful  appearance,  a  quality  which  is 
generally,  at  the  same  time,  an  indication  of  the  personal  tastes  of 
the  owner. 

Harmony  between  Panels  and  Trimmings . — In  deciding  on  a 
colour  scheme,  the  exterior  should  be  finished  to  harmonize  with 
the  colours  chosen  for  the  leather  or  cloth  inside ;  especially  is  this 
necessary  in  an  open  car,  while  with  a  limousine  one  should  aim  at 
a  harmonious  effect  when  the  door  is  opened.  The  choice  of  a  suit¬ 
able  colour  is  often  a  tedious  process,  and  very  often  the  carriage 
builder  is  asked  to  advise,  and  if  he  is  a  wideawake  man,  he  will 
have  a  selection  of  fairly  large  panels,  finished  neatly  with  a  mould¬ 
ing,  which  are  painted,  fine  lined,  and  varnished  in  various  leading 
styles.  The  lady  motorist  is  often  the  one  who  has  this  responsi¬ 
bility  laid  upon  her,  and  as  she  often  has  a  similar  problem  to  face 
in  the  world  of  dress,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  duty  is  carried 
out  with  every  success. 

Dark  Colours  a  Safe  Plan—  To  those  who  may  be  choosing  a 
colour  scheme  for  the  first  time,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  dark 
green,  or  blue  with  black  mouldings,  and  black  upper  parts  and 
rockers,  is  always  a  safe  plan  to  go  upon,  while  dark  browns,  red, 
and  lakes  look  well  and  give  a  somewhat  livelier  appearance.  The 
lighter  body  colours,  such  as  a  light  red,  yellow,  mauve,  and  light 
green  and  blue,  are  now  usually  avoided,  but  those  with  sporting 
tastes  or  family  colours  to  consider  follow  their  bent,  having  as  a 
result  a  very  smart  car,  although  the  colours  seldom  wear  so  well 


104 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


and  are  liable  to  fade.  Quiet  colours  are  usually  understood  to  be 
inseparable  from  the  best  class  of  gentleman’s  carriage,  and  on  the 
whole  they  wear  better,  and  are  more  effective  when  varnished.  For 
the  edging  lines  to  the  mouldings,  wheels  and  springs,  the  lighter 
colours  are  in  demand  as  a  rule,  and  when  used  sparingly  help  to 
define  the  outline  and  leading  parts  of  the  car  without  being  obtrusive. 
The  chassis  or  underworks  may  also  be  painted  in  contrast  to  the 
body,  a  plan  which  is  not  so  much  adopted  as  formerly,  but  was  the 
fashion  with  sporting  horse-drawn  vehicles. 

Some  Actual  Colour  Schemes. — As  a  guide,  some  tables  are  given 
in  order  to  indicate  a  few  schemes  of  colouration.  In  any  of  the 
schemes,  brass  or  nickel  furniture  is  suitable,  the  term  “  furniture  ” 
including  the  lamps,  door,  and  ascending  handles,  step  edging  and 
beading  on  the  body,  if  not  japanned.  Glass  frames  may  be  polished 
or  varnished  in  mahogany,  rosewood,  walnut,  or  oak,  or  covered  to 
match  the  upper  trimming  of  the  car  either  both  sides  or  on  the 
inside  only  when  the  outside  is  polished,  or  the  polishing  may  be  of 
two  different  shades  with  the  lighter  one  inside.  Metal  frames  are 
sometimes  used  to  match  the  furniture,  but  it  is  rather  suggestive  of 
a  hansom  cab. 


Body  panels, 
with  or  with¬ 
out  bonnet. 

Fine  edging  lines 
or  broad  centre 
lines  for  Black 
Mouldings. 
Relieving  lines 
are  seldom 
omitted. 

If  not  black 
mouldings  or 
wings. 

If  not  black 
rocker  or  boot 
panels  below 
seat  line,  and 
black  upper 
parts  if  closed 
body. 

Chassis  with  or 
without  bonnet, 
if  not  to  match 
body. 

• 

Trimming. 

Dark  blue. 

White,  any 
red,  any 
blue  lighter 
than  the 
body  colour. 
All  shades 
of  yellow, 
gold. 

To  match, 
or  lighter 
blue  with 
black  lines 
or  as  Col.  2. 

To  match, 
body  colour. 

Yellow  with 
black  lines, 
red  with 
black  or 
white  lines, 
light  blue 
with  black 
or  d  a  r  k 
blue  lines. 

Dark  or  light 
blue,  red, 
fawn,  drab. 
The  last 
two  colours 
may  be 
used  for 
top  only 
with  other 
colours  in 
contrastbe- 
1 o  w  for 
closed  cars. 

Dark 

green. 

White,  red, 
yellow,  gold. 

Ditto,  but 
green,  in¬ 
stead  of 
blue. 

Ditto. 

Ditto,  but 
green  in¬ 
stead  of 
blue. 

Ditto,  but 
green  in¬ 
stead  of 
blue. 

THE  DECORATION  OF  THE  CAR  105 


Body  panels, 
with  or  with¬ 
out  bonnet. 

Fine  edging  lines 
or  broad  centre 
lines  for  Black 
Mouldinps. 
Relieving  lines 
are  seldom 
omitted. 

If  not  black 
mouldings  or 
wings. 

If  not  black 
rocker  or  boot 
panels  below 
seat  line,  and 
black  upper 
parts  if  closed 
body. 

Chassis  with  or 
without  bonnet, 
if  not  to  match 
body. 

Trimming. 

Dark 

purple 

lake. 

White,  ver¬ 
milion. 

To  match 
with  lines 
as  Col.  2. 

Ditto. 

Vermilion 
with  black 
lines. 

Blue,  red, 
fawn,  or 
drab,  or  last 
two  colours 
for  upper 
parts  only. 

Black. 

Any  colour. 

— 

White,  red, 
or  yellow, 
with  black 
lines. 

Auy  colour. 

White. 

Ditto. 

« 

White  with 
any  colour 
line. 

White. 

Cream  with 
red,  blue, 
or  green 
lines. 

Ditto. 

Dark 

brown. 

Yellow,  red, 
white,  gold. 

To  match, 
or  lighter 
brown,  with 
black  lines 
or  as  Col.  2. 

To  match 
body  colour. 

Yellow,  red, 
or  lighter 
brown,  with 
black  lines 
light  blue, 
with  yel¬ 
low  lines. 

Brown,  red, 
fawn,  drab, 
or  last  two 
as  upper 
colours  in 
combina¬ 
tion  with 
brown  or 
red. 

Light 

blue. 

White,  yel¬ 
low,  gold, 
dark  blue. 

To  match, 
or  darker 
blue  with 
black  lines 
or  as  Col.  2. 

To  match, 
or  dark 
blue. 

1  ' 

To  match, 
or  dark 
blue. 

Dark  or  light 
blue,  brown, 
fawn,  drab. 

Light 

green. 

As  above,  but  substituting  green  for  blue. 

Dark  or  light 
green,  black. 

Bright 

red. 

White,  yel¬ 
low,  or 
dark  red. 

To  match, 
or  darker 
red,  with 
black  lines 
or  as  Col.  2. 

1 

To  match, 
or  darker 
red. 

To  match, 
or  darker 
red. 

Most  shades 
of  red. 

io6 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


Body  panels, 
with  or  with¬ 
out  bonnet. 

Fine  edging  lines 
or  broad  centre 
lines  for  Black 
Mouldings. 
Relieving  lines 
are  soldom 
omitted. 

If  not  black 
mouldings  or 
wings. 

If  not  black 
rocker  or  boot 
panels  below 
seat  line,  and 
black  upper 
parts  if  closed 
body. 

Chassis  with  or 
without  bonnet, 
if  not  to  match 
body. 

Trimming. 

Yellow. 

No  fine  lines, 

To  match. 

To  match. 

Deeper,  or 

Blue,  fawn, 

with  black 

lighter  shade 

drab,  black. 

lines. 

than  body 

colour. 

Grey  (lead 

White,  red. 

To  match. 

To  match. 

Black, 

Black,  red. 

colour). 

white,  red. 

Colour  Schemes  used  by 

Royalty  and  the  Nobility. 

Body  colour. 

Relieving  lines 

Chassis. 

Relieving  lines. 

Furniture. 

Trimming. 

Private  or  Plain  Royal  Colours. 

Dark  pur- 

Vermilion 

— 

— 

Brass. 

Indigo  blue. 

pie  lake. 

centre  line. 

H.M.  The  Queen  Mother. 

White. 

_ 

_ — 

Silver. 

Crimson  mo- 

rocco  and 

drab  cloth. 

H.M.  Queen  Mary. 

Green. 

Lighter 

_ 

_ 

green. 

His  Grace  the  Duke  of  Abercorn. 

Crimson 

White. 

Crimson 

Black,  cen- 

Brass. 

Blue  mo- 

lake. 

lake. 

tred  and 

rocco. 

. 

edged 

white. 

The  Most  Hon.  the  Marquis  of  Lansdowne. 

Claret. 

Red. 

Chassis  red, 

Chassis 

Brass. 

Mottled 

bonnet 

black,  bon- 

cloth. 

claret. 

net  black, 

and  centred 

red. 

His  Grace  the  Duke  of  Marlborough. 

Crimson 

Black. 

,  - 

— 

Silver. 

Brown  mo- 

lake. 

rocco  and 

l 

1 

1 

cloth. 

THE  DECORATION  OF  THE  CAR 


107 


Body  colour. 

Relieving  lines. 

Chassis. 

Relieving  lines. 

Furniture. 

Trimming. 

His  Grace  the  Duke  of  Rutland. 

Blue. 

_ 

Blue. 

Black,  edged 
light  blue. 

Brass. 

Mottled 

cloth. 

The  Most  Hon.  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury. 

Ultra- 

marine 

Black. 

— 

— 

Silver. 

Blue  morocco 
and  cloth. 

blue. 

His  Grace  the  Duke  of  Westminster. 

Blue. 

Deep  orange 
chrome. 

— 

— 

Brass. 

Blue  morocco 
and  cloth. 

The  above  colour  schemes  were  supplied  by  Messrs.  Hooper  &  Co.,  Ltd. 


H.S.H.  Prince  Hatzfeldt. 

Black. 

Yellow. 

Yellow.  J 

Black. 

Brass. 

Black  cloth 
and  leather. 

The  Rt. 

Hon.  the  Earl  of  Mar  and  Kellie. 

Ultra- 

Black,  and 

— 

Brass. 

Drab  cloth. 

marine 

fine  lines  of 

1 

blue. 

primrose 

yellow. 

1 

The  Rt.  Hon.  the  Earl  of  Clarendon. 

Chocolate 

Pale  blue  andl 

— 

Brass. 

Fawn  cloth. 

brown. 

fine  white 

1 

1 

lines. 

The  Rt. 

Hon.  the  Earl  of  Londesborough. 

Ultra- 

White. 

— 

Silver. 

Blue 

morocco. 

marine 

blue. 

Her  Grace  the  Duchess  of  Hamilton. 

Dark 

Straw 

Dark 

Black,  and 

Brass. 

Maroon 

maroon. 

yellow. 

maroon. 

fine  lines  of 

leather. 

straw 

yellow. 

I 

The  Rt.  Hon.  the  Earl  Cowley. 

Chocolate 

Cream  and 

— 

— 

Brass. 

Brown 

brown. 

fine  lines  of 

|  » 

morocco. 

red. 

1 

| 

1 

- — — 

N  B. — It  is  usual  to  trim  the  driving  seat  in  .buffalo  hide  to  match  the  body 
colour,  whatever  may  be  the  material  and  colour  of  the  trimming  used  inside 


a  closed  car. 


io8 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


Striping. — As  indicated  above,  the  usual  way  of  relieving  a  body 
or  chassis  colour  is  by  a  fine  line.  With  the  chassis  (including  the 
bonnet)  sometimes  two  fine  lines  are  used,  called  double  fine-lining, 
with  or  without  a  broad  picking  out  line  in  the  centre,  or  the  broad 
line  may  be  used  alone.  One  sometimes  sees  more  than  one  colour 
used  when  there  is  more  than  one  relieving  line,  and  unless  the 
vehicle  is  at  rest  any  elaboration  is  entirely  lost  to  the  onlooker. 
Centreing  is  sometimes  adopted,  which  consists  in  using  a  narrow 
line  in  relief  in  the  centre  of  a  wider  one.  The  body  panels  are 
often  striped.  This  may  be  either  as  a  broad  stripe,  say  an  inch 
wide,  or  a  series  of,  say,  three  fine  lines  occupying  together  one  inch 
of  panel,  each  series  being  set  about  1J  ins.  apart,  and  occasionally 
the  broad  stripes  are  relieved  with  a  lighter  fine  line  either  side. 
The  colouring  of  the  stripes  and  fine  lines  is  generally  carried  out 
in  gentle  contrast. 

The  stripe  colour  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  moulding,  and 
reference  to  cols.  2  and  8  of  the  tables  just  given  will  give  a 
general  idea  as  to  what  may  be  done  in  this  direction. 

Caning  and  Basketwork. — Another  means  of  decorating  the  body 
consists  in  applying  sham  cane  or  basket  work  to  the  belt  panel,  or 
in  a  few  instances,  the  whole  body.  The  sham  caning  is  bought 
in  sheets  all  ready  to  stick  on  to  the  panel  surface  required,  and  may 
generally  be  recognized  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  ready-made 
article  seldom  allows  for  the  bevels,  curves,  outlines  of  the  mould¬ 
ings,  and  other  peculiarities  of  each  body.  Sham  caning,  when  done 
by  hand,  is  put  on  by  means  of  a  tube  tool,  and  the  number  of 
coachpainters  who  are  capable  of  doing  this  is  very  small,  as  there 
is  so  little  call  for  it. 

Bevelled  Glass . — Some  motorists  desire  to  make  their  cars  look 
more  sumptuous  by  using  bevelled  plate-glass  to  the  lights.  It  is 
not  to  be  recommended  from  the  utilitarian  point  of  view,  as  the 
line  of  vision  is  obstructed  through  the  bevel,  a  broken  glass  takes 
longer  to  replace,  and  the  whole  light  is  made  heavier. 

Polished  and  Varnished  Woodwork. — Polished  woodwork  has 
already  been  mentioned.  There  is  another  scheme  of  body  decora¬ 
tion  which  is  not  made  as  much  use  of  as  might  be,  and  that  is  when 
the  car  is  finished  in  the  natural  or  varnished  wood.  When  the 
timber  has  been  carefully  selected,  and  the  filling  up  of  the  grain  of 


THE  DECORATION  OF  THE  CAR  109 

the  wood  successfully  done,  a  fine  result  is  achieved.  This  finish  is 
desirable  for  shooting  brakes,  and  may  be  used  for  closed  cars  if  the 
owner  wishes  to  have  a  distinctive  finish. 

The  extensive  use  of  metal  panels  precludes  this  varnished  wood 
style  of  finish  for  most  touring  cars,  but  designs  can  always  be 
obtained  from  the  carriage  builder  where  wood  panels  and  framing 
can  be  used  throughout.  It  is  a  colour  which  does  not  show  the 
dust  readily,  and  therefore  admirably  adapted  for  touring  cars. 
Black  mouldings  and  ironwork  are  often  a  part  of  the  scheme,  while 
a  fine  line  of  red  looks  well.  The  use  of  metal  panels  has  suggested 
to  the  client,  in  some  instances,  the  finishing  of  the  body  in 
aluminium  paint  or  with  polished  panels.  Either  of  these  schemes 
has  the  drawback  of  retaining  its  freshness  only  for  a  very  short 
period. 

The  Time-factor  in  Painting , — The  carriage  builder  is  often 
grumbled  at  for  the  time  taken  in  bringing  the  body  from  the  bare 
wood  to  the  last  coat  of  varnish.  During  the  last  seventy  or  eighty 
years,  or  even  more,  practically  nothing  has  been  done  to  hasten 
the  process.  In  this  era  of  hurry  it  is  natural  that  this  slow  method 
should  have  received  a  large  amount  of  well-deserved  criticism. 
The  time  taken  for  painting,  not  only  extends  to  the  last  coat  of 
varnish,  but,  to  give  satisfaction,  a  week  should  be  allowed  for  the 
varnish  to  harden,  which,  as  might  be  expected,  has  often  resulted 
in  the  car  being  taken  away  before  this  extra  time  has  elapsed,  the 
consequence  being  a  readily  dulled  panel  surface,  so  naturally  the 
motorist  eagerly  awaits  a  quicker,  if  not  a  cheaper,  process. 

If  bodies  were  made  more  extensively  of  metal  we  should  hear 
more  of  stove  enamelling,  which  is  certainly  a  quicker  and  cheaper 
process,  and  those  who  are  familiar  with  the  wear  and  tear  a  well- 
finished  bicycle  will  stand  can  form  some  idea  of  the  durability  this 
process  possesses.  From  the  practical  point  of  view,  it  would  prevent 
any  trimming  being  done  on  the  body  until  the  last  coat  of  enamel 
had  been  stoved  and  hardened,  which  would  tend  to  counter-balance 
some  of  the  time  saved  on  the  painting.  At  the  present  time,  it  is 
usual  for  the  trimmer  to  do  the  best  part  of  his  work  before  the  car 
enters  the  varnish  room,  so  that  the  body  is  handled  as  little  as 
possible  after  being  varnished.  Motoring  has  many  more  adherents 
than  ever  owned  horse-drawn  carriages,  consequently  many  become 


no 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


vehicle  owners  for  the  first  time.  This  has  meant  a  large  amount 
of  extra  criticism  being  levelled  at  the  carriage  builder,  and  an  ever- 
recurring  topic  in  the  columns  of  the  motor  weeklies  is  the  subject 
of  the  tediousness  of  painting.  A  motorist,  for  instance,  familiar 
with  the  time  expended  on  painting  a  mansion,  cannot  at  first 
realize  the  necessity  for  six  weeks  to  paint  a  body  which  has  about 
as  much  surface  to  paint  as  a  butler’s  pantry.  Some  motorists 
content  themselves  with  dull,  unvarnished  panels  finished  in  lead 
colour,  which  they  can  touch  up  as  required ;  others  ask  for  various 
cold  enamel  paints  to  be  used,  so  that  some  of  the  coats  of  paint 
may  be  omitted.  A  well-painted  horse-carriage  lasts  five  or  six 
years,  with  an  annual  coat  of  varnish,  but  the  motor  car,  travelling 
at  a  greater  speed,  often  in  less  favourable  weather,  and  covering 
more  miles  in  the  same  time,  has  its  panels  dulled  much  sooner. 
More  durable  varnishes  have  not  yet  been  discovered  for  the  extra 
stress  entailed  with  the  automobile,  therefore  repainting  should  be 
carried  out  more  frequently,  and  perhaps  it  would  be  a  wiser  plan 
with  the  man  who  uses  his  car  often  and  for  fairly  long  journeys,  to 
have  the  painting  done  with  less  coats  and  repainted  each  year, 
rather  than  copying  the  older  method  exactly  and  expecting  it  to 
last  as  long.  Painting,  from  the  practical  point  of  view,  is  described 
in  the  next  chapter.  The  quicker  processes  are  also  described, 
likewise  the  procedure  with  regard  to  enamelling. 

Metal  Fittings. — In  motor-body  work,  brass  and  nickel  plate  are 
used  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  with  horsed  carriages.  Some 
aver  that,  as  there  is  no  horse  to  give  life  and  action  to  the  equipage, 
the  use  of  more  bright  metal  becomes  a  necessity.  The  man  who 
has  to  clean  the  metal  work  daily  will  certainly  not  agree  with  this 
point  of  view,  and  here  and  there  are  signs  that  a  little  more  black 
japan  is  better,  both  from  an  economical  and  artistic  point  of 
view.  Plating  may  be  either  electro-deposited,  when  the  film  is 
extremely  thin  and  soon  wears  off,  or  it  may  be  close-plated,  when 
an  actual  thin  sheet  of  metal  is  soldered  on.  The  latter  is,  although 
a  more  expensive  process,  far  more  durable,  and  well  worth  the 
extra  outlay.  Gun-metal  and  oxidized  fittings  are  sometimes 
used,  especially  for  interior  work,  while  some  of  the  outside  handles 
may  be  covered  in  leather. 

Heraldic  Display. — The  final  touch,  to  a  well-designed  and 


THE  DECORATION  OF  THE  CAR 


1 1 1 


finished  motor  carriage,  is  the  display  of  a  neat  cypher,  monogram, 
or  heraldic  device.  A  monogram  is  a  combination  of  two  or  more 
letters  in  which  one  cannot  be  separated  from  the  whole,  a  cypher  is 
merely  an  interlacing  or  placing  together  of  two  or  more  letters, 
being  in  no  way  dependent  for  their  parts  on  any  other  letter  used. 

The  heraldic  device  usually  takes  the  form  of  the  owner’s  crest, 
and  may  be  in  its  proper  colours  or  simply  in  relief,  that  is  of  a 
lighter  shade  of  the  body  colour.  Good  herald  painters  are  scarce, 
and  a  panel  is  often  marred  by  an  indifferently  executed  piece  of 
work. 


CHAPTER  XI 


PAINTING 

The  Ideal  Paint  Shop. — The  cleanest  place  in  the  factory  should  be 
the  paint  shop,  because  dirt  here  causes  more  loss  of  money  than 
in  any  other  department,  including  the  offices.  A  top  light  is 
advisable,  because  the  work  is  more  evenly  and  strongly  lighted,  the 
only  disadvantage  of  skylights  being  that  they  generally  leak. 
Cleanliness  on  the  floor  and  walls  is  desirable,  and  all  the  tools 
used  should  be  kept  in  a  similar  state. 

Ready  Prepared  Paints. — The  painter  should,  during  his  ap¬ 
prenticeship,  learn  how  to  grind  colours,  but  it  is  only  the  ignorant 
workman  who  will  refuse  the  ready-ground  colours,  which  may  be 
obtained  from  any  of  the  leading  paint  houses  of  to-day.  Maybe 
he  knows  more  about  the  subject  than  a  firm  who  has  devoted  a 
hundred  years,  much  money  in  special  machinery,  and  fees  paid  to 
chemists  and  others,  but  it  is  unlikely.  The  paint  manufacturer 
should  be  chosen  with  caution ;  long  establishment  is  the  chief 
factor  to  bear  in  mind,  and  a  visit  to  the  mills  will  often  increase 
one’s  confidence.  When  purchasing  ready-ground  colours  the 
painter  should  be  careful  to  follow  the  special  directions  given  on 
the  tin.  Those  ground  in  japan,  as  a  rule,  must  only  be  thinned 
with  turps,  and  a  little  linseed  oil  to  retard  the  drying,  but  driers 
have  usually  to  be  excluded.  Most  colours  are  put  up  into  one  to 
five-pound  tins,  and  in  small  collapsible  tubes. 

Time  can  also  be  saved  by  using  special  brands  of  filling  up. 
Some  of  the  makers  claim  that  it  can  be  used  as  quickly  as  two  or 
three  coats  a  day,  and  mixed  with  dry  white  lead  is  equivalent  to 
hard  stopping. 

The  body  maker,  after  he  has  finished  his  woodwork  and  super¬ 
intended  the  fitting,  and  himself  fixed  the  ironwork  necessary, 


PAINTING 


!I3 

hands  the  body  over  to  the  painter.  When  time  is  pressing,  the 
preliminary  coats  of  lead  colour  are  put  on  in  the  body  shop  as  the 
job  stands  by  the  bench,  but  it  is  not  a  good  plan,  because  any 
dusting  can  only  be  done  in  a  very  unsatisfactory  manner,  as  the 
movements  of  the  men  at  work,  for  ever  creating  shavings  and 
sawdust,  and  the  general  state  of  most  body-lofts,  render  it  hardly 
a  fit  place  even  for  these  initial  stages  of  the  painting. 

Busting  the  Body . — The  body  should  be  carefully  dusted  (the 
corners  not  being  forgotten)  inside  and  out  in  the  body  shop,  with 
the  rough  dusting  tool,  then  removed  to  the  general  paint  shop, 
where  it  can  be  gone  over  again  with  a  less  worn  tool.  Perhaps,  in 
a  few  years’  time,  the  vacuum  process  will  be  appreciated,  for  the 
usual  kind  of  manual  dusting  only  disturbs  the  “  matter  out  of 
place,”  and  not  all  the  dust  is  transferred  to  the  tool  or  to  the  floor, 
for  a  considerable  portion  remains  suspended  in  the  air,  as  can  be 
easily  seen  on  a  bright  day  when  sunbeams  are  present.  Dusting 
should  be  done  with  as  little  flourish  as  possible  and  out  of  the 
draught.  The  painter  should  tactfully  point  out  to  the  body  maker 
any  panel  pin  not  properly  punched  home  or  any  uneven  surface, 
or  framing  hammer  marks  which  can  be  scraped  out,  or  stray 
excesses  of  white  lead  or  other  fixative  used  in  the  joints.  He  takes 
it  for  granted  that  the  timber  used  is  seasoned  ;  if  it  is  not,  trouble 
is  ahead,  for  painting  cannot  be  done  properly  on  any  but  a  dry  and 
non-greasy  surface. 

The  Priming  Coat—  The  body  is  mounted  on  a  pair  of  trestles 
so  that  it  may  receive  all  over,  inside  and  out,  top  and  bottom, 
a  coat  of  priming  or  lead-colour  consisting  of  ground  genuine  white 
lead,  worked  up  with  raw  (not  boiled)  linseed  oil,  patent  dryers  or 
gold  size,  lamp  black  to  give  the  mass  a  tint  of  grey,  and  sufficient 
turps  to  allow  it  to  be  spread  by  the  brush.  Turpentine  readily 
evaporates,  so  that  the  oil  gets  slightly  in  excess  as  the  job  pro¬ 
gresses,  and  if  the  body  is  a  large  one,  a  little  more  turps 
may  be  added  as  a  corrective.  Too  much  oil  will  cause  the  coat 
of  colour  to  contract,  making  itself  evident  around  pin  holes  and 
joints,  as  well  as  destroying  its  absorbing  power,  which  is  the 
chief  property  of  a  priming  coat.  The  priming  is  generally  under¬ 
taken  by  the  painter’s  labourer,  or  even  a  boy,  and  it  is  occasion¬ 
ally  looked  upon  as  a  very  simple  job  which  can  be  slapped  on 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


114 

anyhow,  so  long  as  the  surface  is  covered.  Many  jobs  are  spoilt 
at  this  initial  stage  by  the  labourer  having  an  animated  conversa¬ 
tion  with  a  fellow  workman,  consequently  the  latter  part  of  the 
coat  is  finished  with  less  care  than  the  beginning,  in  order  to 
make  up  for  time  lost.  The  ideal  painter  will  do  his  utmost  to 
spread  an  even  thin  coat  (as  this  will  saturate  the  wood  and  dry 
more  successfully)  over  the  entire  surface,  stippling  the  hairs  of  the 
brush  well  into  the  pin  holes,  screw  heads,  joints  and  corners  of  the 
mouldings,  and  the  skill  he  thus  acquires  in  spreading  an  even  thin 
coat  will  be  useful  when  he  is  allowed  to  put  on  the  body  colours. 

The  next  Priming  Goats. — Here  comes  the  first  delay.  The 
time  required  for  the  first  coat  to  dry  is  about  twenty-four  hours, 
although  if  more  can  be  allowed  so  much  the  better,  a  fact  which 
holds  good  at  any  stage  of  the  painting.  If  the  temperature  of  the 
paint  shop  is  kept  at  60°-65°  F.  all  the  year  round,  one  day  will 
suffice,  especially  if  thin  coats,  with  not  too  much  oil,  are  used. 
The  next  process  consists  of  either  one  or  two  coats  of  a  similar 
nature  with  twenty-four  hour  intervals. 

Roof  Covering. — If  the  body  is  a  brougham,  limousine,  or  other 
closed  body,  the  roof  has  to  be  covered  with  russet  hide,  moleskin, 
or — for  a  cheap  job — linen,  to  make  it  stronger,  weatherproof,  and  to 
hide  the  panel  joints.  This  is  done  after  the  first  priming  coat,  and 
it  is  advisable  to  put  a  coat  of  priming  on  the  roof  a  week  before 
the  body  woodwork  is  finished,  so  that  it  can  be  tight  and  dry 
before  the  real  painting  commences.  The  covering  is  sleeked  on 
wet  by  the  trimmer,  the  top  quarter  panels  being  seldom  treated  as 
well,  as  in  the  old  days.  This  covering  should  dry  tightly  and 
without  crease,  and  receives  two  or  three  coats  of  a  mixture  of 
japan,  white  lead  and  japan  gold  size,  allowing  a  day  between  each 
coat,  this  part  of  the  work  proceeding  simultaneously  with  the  body 
priming  coats,  the  last  coat  going  over  the  whole  job. 

II  hen  Stopping-up  is  Done. — Opinion  is  divided  as  to  when  the 
stopping-up  should  take  place.  Some  painters  do  it  now,  while 
others  leave  it  till  the  filling-up,  which  is  next  described,  is  done. 
The  latter  method  would  appear  to  be  the  better  one,  as  the  five  to 
seven  coats  of  filling-up,  if  adhering  successfully,  leave  less  imper¬ 
fections  to  be  rectified. 

Filling -up  Coats. — The  body  has  now  to  receive  its  several  coats 


PAINTING 


ii5 

of  filling-up,  the  number  of  coats  differing  according  to  the  class  of 
work.  Three  or  four  coats  are  used  in  cheap  work  and  on  metal 
panels,  while  seven  is  the  maximum  for  the  best-class  jobs  with 
mahogany  panels. 

The  filling-up  or  rough  stuff  may  be  bought  ready  to  mix  with 
the  white  lead,  turpentine,  and  other  ingredients ;  seldom  does  the 
painter  now  grind  his  own  spruce  ochre.  Filling-up  may  also  be 
bought  in  tins  ready  to  use,  all  that  is  required  being  a  little 
turpentine  as  a  thinner.  The  filling-up  process  takes  at  least  a 
week,  for  a  day  should  be  allowed  between  each  coat. 

Stopping -up. — When  the  final  coat  is  dry,  the  body  is  stopped 
up  with  a  mixture  of  dry  white  lead  kneaded  with  japan  gold-size 
or  hard-drying  varnish,  to  the  consistency  of  dough.  Some  add 
turps  and  tub  lead  to  help  the  stopper  to  harden.  This  hard  stopper 
is  forced  in  carefully  with  the  putty  knife  in  all  remaining  pin  holes 
and  other  imperfections  showing  on  the  body,  but  the  less  need 
there  is  for  it  the  better,  and  the  methods  of  construction  should 
advance  along  that  line  which  demands  less  levelling  up  by  the 
painter.  The  body  has  now  been  covered  with  a  rough  reddish  or 
slatey  coat,  according  to  the  ingredients  used,  of  a  stony  feel,  with 
white  dabs  of  stopper  here  and  there. 

The  Staining  Coat. — The  body  is  then  covered  completely  with  a 
coat  of  staining  or  guide  colour,  consisting  of  a  dark  grey  thin  paint 
made  of  turps,  gold  size  and  lampblack,  or  any  colour  darker  than 
the  filling-up. 

J Rubbing  down. — This  staining  coat  is  called  a  “  guide  colour,” 
because  it  aids  the  rubber  down  to  see  how  his  work  is  progressing 
in  the  next  process.  The  rubbing  down  is  executed  by  means  of 
real  pumice  stone,  but  more  often  with  manufactured  pumice  blocks, 
and  plenty  of  clean  cold  water.  The  rubbing  down  is  perhaps  one 
of  the  most  tedious  processes  that  have  to  be  done  in  the  carriage- 
builder’s  factory,  and  there  are  times  when  impatience  gets  the 
upper  hand  and  back  and  lower  panels  get  insufficient  treatment. 
The  painter  rubs  with  his  block,  keeping  plenty  of  water  on  the 
panel  by  means  of  his  sponge,  and  wiping  off  the  sludge  as  it  works 
up  under  the  process.  A  sash  tool  is  useful  to  wipe  into  the  corners 
with,  and  the  experienced  man  can  tell  by  the  feel  with  his  hand  as 
to  how  the  work  is  progressing.  Theoretically  the  whole  of  the 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


1 16 

staining  coat  should  be  removed,  but  this  is  not  essential  if  the 
surface  feels  perfectly  smooth,  and,  in  fact,  American  painters  some¬ 
times  omit  the  staining  coat  altogether.  Careless  and  vigorous 
strokes  towards  completion  of  the  work  will  often  score  the  panel. 
When  the  rubbing  down  is  completed  the  body  is  washed  over  with 
clear  water  and  dried  with  a  washleather  and  allowed  not  less  than 
12  hours  to  dry,  although  two  days  is  safer,  because  dampness 
makes  any  subsequent  coat  a  total  or  partial  failure,  therefore  the 
temperature  of  the  paint  loft  should  be  well  maintained  after  the 
body  has  been  rubbed  down  and  wiped  off.  The  sharp  edges  of 
panels,  mouldings,  and  other  parts  may  now  be  carefully  gone 
over  with  fine  sandpaper,  the  panel  surfaces  receiving  a  similar 
treatment. 

The  Excellence  of  the  Prepared  Surface. — When  this  is  completed 
the  body  should  feel  like  a  smooth  stone  slab,  and  to  the  initiated 
this  is  a  fitting  opportunity  to  visit  the  carriage  builder,  and  note 
the  difference  in  this  surface  and  that  of  a  body  just  leaving  the 
bodymaker’s  hands.  He  may  also  with  advantage  compare  it  with 
the  office  doors  and  other  house  painter’s  work  that  may  be  about, 
and  however  freshly  painted  they  may  be,  they  will  feel  very  soft 
after  the  hardness  of  the  filled-up  panel,  apart  from  the  fact  that 
the  grain  of  the  wood  will  be  showing  through.  Therein  lies  the 
excellence  of  the  carriage  painter’s  work,  and  it  is  not  too  much  to 
say  that  it  is  unsurpassed  in  any  other  branch  of  painting  work, 
and  maybe  is  worth  all  the  delay  it  entails. 

Preparation  for  the  Colour  Coat. — But  we  are  only  half-way 
through  with  the  process;  the  body  has  yet  to  be  painted  and 
varnished.  Another  coat  of  lead-colour  is  given,  similar  to  the 
priming  coats  described,  and  faced  down  lightly  with  pumice  stone 
and  water,  but  this  of  course  is  a  light  job  compared  with  the  previous 
one  of  rubbing  down.  If  the  rubbing  down  has  not  been  absolutely 
successful,  some  further  application  of  hard  stopper  may  be  necessary 
before  facing,  but  the  subsequent  coats  will  be  applied  with  a  lighter 
heart  if  this  is  unnecessary.  The  pigments  which  will  give  the  body 
panels  their  final  hue  are  now  dealt  with.  Small  quantities  can  be 
ground  on  the  stone  with  the  muller  and  larger  quantities  in  the 
mill,  but,  as  has  been  indicated  before,  ready-ground  paints  are 
available,  which  are  of  impalpable  fineness  if  obtained  from  a  reliable 


PAINTING  1 17 

house,  and  cheaper  too,  for  the  dry  powder  plus  vehicles  and  painter’s 
time  is  far  dearer,  besides  taking  up  room  and  time. 

Ground  and  Body  Colour  Coats. — A  coat  of  ground  colour  is  laid 
on  evenly,  the  black  panels  such  as  the  upper  quarters  and  lower 
rocker  parts  receiving  a  coat  of  black.  Then  follow  two  coats  of 
best  body  colour,  and  two  coats  of  japan  on  the  black  parts,  a  day 
being  allowed  between  each  coat.  Then  follows  a  coat  of  varnish 
colour,  which,  when  dry,  has  to  be  flatted. 

Flatting. — Flatting  is  done  with  pumice  dust,  and  not  with  the 
brick  or  stone  as  with  rubbing  down  and  facing.  Clean  cold  water 
is  used  as  before,  while  a  pad  of  felt  is  used  to  rub  the  dust  over 
the  wet  panels.  The  panels  being  wiped  and  allowed  to  properly 
dry,  the  body  presents  that  dead  smooth  surface  which  has  the  hard¬ 
ness  of  the  filling  made  yet  smoother  and  more  attractive  by  the 
subsequent  coats  of  paint.  The  final  coats  of  varnish  have  yet  to 
come,  and  demand  the  greatest  amount  of  experience,  as  no  amount 
of  written  instruction  can  ever  make  up  for  actual  practice. 
Yarnish  also  plays  many  tricks  which  have  not  all  been  properly 
explained,  so  that  all  reasonable  precautions  are  necessary  to  ensure 
success. 

Varnishing  Coats.— The  body,  when  perfectly  dry,  is  given  a  coat 
of  flatting  varnish  and  flatted  again  as  already  described.  The 
mouldings,  if  black,  are  now  gone  over,  and  the  picking  out  or  fine- 
lining  done.  After  the  final  flatting  the  body  is  removed  to  a  special 
varnishing  room,  kept  scrupulously  clean,  moderately  heated,  scien¬ 
tifically  ventilated,  free  from  strong  air  currents,  and  electrically 
lighted.  Here  the  coat  of  finishing  varnish  is  applied,  during  which 
process  this  part  of  the  establishment  is  often  locked,  and  an  in¬ 
truder  is  looked  upon  as  a  person  wanting  in  sympathy  with  the 
painter’s  craft,  besides  disturbing  possible  dust  and  creating  cold 
draughts  of  air. 

Painting  the  Chassis—  Whether  the  chassis  is  an  old  or  a  new 
one,  there  is  a  lot  of  cleaning  to  be  done  before  it  is  fit  for  the 
painter’s  operations.  All  grease  and  dirt  has  to  be  removed,  and 
the  whole  carefully  dusted.  The  chassis  is  placed  on  trestles,  and 
the  wheels  removed.  With  the  chassis  painting  it  will  be  convenient 
to  reckon  in  the  wings  with  their  stays,  painted  tool  boxes,  luggage 
grids,  number  plates,  and  other  oddments  which  the  coachbuilder 


1 1 8 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


attaches  to  the  car  when  finished.  The  body  is  mounted  on  the 
chassis  never  later  than  when  the  flatting  coat  of  varnish  has 
been  dealt  with. 

Hard  Stopper  Plastering  and  its  Hangers. — The  chassis  and 
wheels  are  given  two  thin  coats  of  priming  colour,  after  which  it  is 
sand-papered  down.  A  thin  plastering  of  hard  stopper  may  then  be 
applied  to  the  woodwork,  but  as  the  subsequent  papering-down  fills 
the  surrounding  atmosphere  with  fine  lead  dust,  a  coat  of  filling-up 
is  much  preferable.  This  coat  is  then  faced  down  with  pumice- 
stone  and  water,  after  which,  when  dry,  another  thin  coat  of  lead 
colour  is  applied.  The  colour  coats  follow,  as  with  the  body,  the 
flatting  varnish  being  specially  manufactured  for  the  rougher  wear 
the  underworks  are  subjected  to,  generally  known  as  hard-drying 
varnish  (special  motor-wheel  varnishes  are  also  made),  while 
the  final  coat  is  applied  to  wings  and  wheels  while  away  from 
the  chassis,  which  have  been  temporarily  run  on  to  move  the  body 
from  the  general  paint  shop  to  the  varnishing  room.  Certain 
parts  of  the  chassis,  such  as  the  bonnet,  where  awkward  corners 
are  present,  may  have  simply  to  rely  on  repeated  coats  of  lead  and 
stopping  in  order  to  get  up  a  good  surface,  because  the  awkwardness 
of  the  corners  does  not  allow  of  rubbing  down  or  facing  to  any 
extent.  The  inside  of  the  bonnet  may  receive  a  coat  of  lead- colour 
followed  by  a  coat  of  black  only. 

Finishing  in  the  Varnished  Wood. — The  ash  mouldings  are 
treated  with  a  coat  of  linseed  oil,  which  is  then  carefully  wiped  off. 
The  panels,  which  should  match  as  near  as  possible  as  regards 
colour,  or  some  of  them  may  have  to  be  stained,  receive  six  to  eight 
coats  of  gold-size,  allowing  a  day  between  each  coat  to  dry.  Two 
coats  of  flatting  varnish  next  follow,  each  coat  being  allowed  to  dry 
and  flatted  respectively  with  pumice  dust  and  water,  and  wiped 
with  the  washleather  and  allowed  to  dry.  The  final  coat  of  varnish 
is  as  with  ordinary  painted  work,  except  that  best  elastic  varnish  is 
used  instead  of  finishing  varnish. 

The  Time  Occupied—  The  following  table  expresses  concisely  the 
time  taken  on  a  properly  painted  job,  after  which  a  few  remarks 
will  be  made  as  to  quick  jobs,  and  where  time  may  be  saved  when 
the  job  is  urgent. 


PAINTING 


”9 


Name  of  colour  coat  and  process. 


Time  occupied. 


First  coat  of  lead-colour  and  drying . 

Second  ,,  ,,  >>  . 

Third  ,,  ,,  >>  . 

Six  coats  of  filling-up  and  drying . 

Stopping-up,  drying,  and  staining  coat . 

Rubbing  down  . . 

Drying  after  rubbing  down . 

Coat  of  lead-colour,  any  stopping  required,  drying,  and 

finishing  off  for  ground  colour . 

Ground  colour  and  drying . . 

Two  coats  of  best  body  colour  and  drying . 

One  coat  of  varnish  colour  and  drying . 

Flatting  and  drying . 

Coat  of  flatting  varnish,  and  drying . 

Flatting,  drying,  and  picking  out . 

One  coat  of  finishing  varnish  and  preliminary  drying  .  .  . 

Hardening  and  washing  ofi . 


11  days 


10 


3 


*  9 


1 

n 


99 

9  9 


2 

2 

4 

2?, 

2 

2| 

o 

O 


99 
99 
9  9 
99 
9  9 
99 
9  9 


|  48  days, 

or  about  8|-  weeks 
of  working  days, 
the  week  ends 
being  thrown  in 
to  help  the  drying 


Such,  of  course,  is  an  ideal  time  table,  which  will  ensure  a  first- 
class  job  which  will  last  years  of  careful  driving  with  an  annual 
touching  up,  flatting,  and  revarnishing.  The  coachbuilder  of  fifty 
or  sixty  years  ago  often  took  six  months  over  the  painting.  But 
not  one  motor  car  in  three  thousand  gets  this  treatment.  B} 
leaving  out  a  coat  of  lead-colour,  two  of  the  filling  up,  one  of  the 
colour  coats,  hastening  all  the  drying,  and  leaving  out  the  week 
of  hardening,  the  time  can  easily  be  halved,  in  this  instance,  but 
spread  over  a  period  of  five  or  six  years  the  same  amount  of  time 
is  spent  in  the  paint  shops,  although  this  may  be  of  little  moment 
if  the  car  changes  hands  during  that  period.  If  no  satisfactory 
method  is  found  of  simplifying  the  painting,  it  is  possible  that 
touring,  as  distinct  from  town  cars,  will  merely  be  painted  from 
the  protective  point  of  view,  and  little  attempt  made  to  create 
mirror-like  surfaces.  The  usual  time  table  is  as  follows  . 


120 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


Name  of  colour  coat  or  process. 


Time  occupied. 


First  coat  of  lead-colour  and  drying 
Second  ,,  ,,  ,, 

Five  coats  of  filling-up  and  drying  . 
Stopping-up,  drying,  and  staining  . 

Kubbing  down . 

Drying  after  rubbing  down  .  .  . 

Coat  of  lead-colour,  etc . 

Ground  colour  and  drying  .... 
Coat  of  best  colour  and  drying  .  . 

Flatting  and  drying . 

Coat  of  flatting  varnish  and  drying 
Flatting,  drying,  and  picking  out  . 
Coat  of  finishing  varnish  .... 


I 


1 

1 

7 

1 

1 


day 

days 

day 

9J 

15 


1 

1 

1 

1 


5  > 


11  days 


>» 


21  days, 

or  about  4  weeks 
of  working  days 


When  plenty  of  time  is  taken,  a  wet  day  can  be  avoided  for 
varnishing  and  as  little  work  done  by  artificial  light  as  possible. 

A  Quick  Job  with  Enamel. — A  quicker  job  can  be  effected  by 
substituting  for  the  three  coats  of  body  colour  and  a  coat  of  flatting 
varnish  one  or  two  of  a  good  brand  of  enamel  or  lacquer.  This 
will  save  nearly  a  week.  So  far  this  experiment  seems  to  have  been 
confined  to  open  cars  painted  a  light  colour ;  but  these  lacquers  can 
be  obtained  in  countless  shades.  If  twro  coats  of  lacquer  are  used, 
the  first  of  course  will  be  flatted  and  is  usually  thinned  with  turps. 
No  final  varnishing  coat  should  be  necessary  if  the  lacquer  is  one 
of  the  well-known  brands.  Such  a  job  can  be  comfortably  got  out 
in  three  working  weeks. 

Repainting  Jobs. — In  repainting  work,  where  a  job  comes  in  to  be 
done  up,  the  work  is  only  a  short  process,  especially  if  the  same  or 
a  darker  colour  is  to  be  used.  When  a  lighter  colour  is  asked  for 
the  old  paint  has  to  be  removed  down  to  the  filling  up,  although 
some  recommend  carefully  flatting  and  giving  a  coat  of  filling-up 
and  facing  down  followed  by  a  coat  of  lead-colour.  It  sounds 
feasible  and  is  worthy  of  more  extended  trial.  Another  method  is 
to  touch  up  the  bad  places  if  a  metal-panelled  body  with  three  parts 
of  raw  linseed  oil  to  one  of  quick-drying  varnish,  and  allow  to  stand 
for  thirty-six  hours,  before  applying  the  special  light  coat  of  lead- 
colour.  Generally  speaking,  paint  containing  white  lead  should  not 


PAINTING 


1 2 1 


be  used  next  to  the  bare  metal  surface,  but  the  mixture  given  above, 
the  same  remark  of  course  applying  to  new  work,  and  often  a  coat 
of  raw  oil,  afterwards  wiped  off,  is  given  to  the  metal  panel. 

Some  painters  do  not  fill  up  the  panels  of  metal  bodies  at  all. 

Removing  Paint. — Burning  off  by  means  of  a  lamp  is  seldom  the 
practice  adopted,  for  there  is  always  the  danger  of  fire  among  the 
combustibles  surrounding  the  painter,  as  well  as  the  unpleasant 
odour  and  danger  of  charring  the  body  and  opening  the  joints. 
Various  preparations  are  now  on  the  market  known  as  paint  le- 
movers.  One  coat  of  a  good  brand  should  loosen  the  paint,  when  it 
can  easily  be  removed  with  the  stripping  knife.  The  burning-off 
method  often  means  that  the  filling  up  is  defaced,  necessitating 
another  coat  or  two  of  rough  stuff  and  subsequent  facing  to  make 
good,  while  the  use  of  ammonia  and  other  alkalies  is  a  primitive 
and  costly  process,  which  may  mean  a  great  deal  of  stopping-up  to 
be  done  before  a  smooth  coat  of  lead-colour  can  be  got  on.  In 
repainting  work  the  preparation  of  the  chassis  for  the  painter  is 
often  a  long  and  laborious  process,  which  is  not  always  allowed  for 
in  the  estimate  given.  It  may  be  as  well  to  remind  the  reader  that 
even  if  a  small  new  panel  has  to  be  inserted,  a  cleai  foitnight  is 
necessary  for  painting,  if  it  is  to  have  anything  like  the  cliaiactei 

and  finish  of  the  other  parts  of  the  car. 

Colour  Nomenclature. — In  deciding  an  exact  colour  scheme  for  the 
car,  whether  the  painting  or  the  trimming,  a  certain  amount  of  diffi¬ 
culty  lies  in  describing  a  colour.  It  is  always  the  best  plan  to  have 
a  sample  which  can  be  divided  or  a  sample  number  quoted,  as  mis¬ 
understandings  can  easily  occur.  Ask  half  a  dozen  people  to  pick 
out  olive-green  from  a  collection  of  greens,  and  the  result  is  simply 
astounding.  Different  makers  of  colour  have  their  own  fancy 
names,  and  the  same  name  may  be  a  different  tint  according  to  the 
house  it  comes  from.  Such  descriptions  as  Napier  green,  Panhaid 
and  Mercedes  reds,  may  refer  to  any  shade  according  to  the 
individual  considered. 

Lining  Tools.— Where  a  gold  or  silver  line  has  to  be  put  on 
instead  o i  the  usual  line  of  pigment,  this  may  be  done  expeditiously 
by  means  of  a  little  tool  called  a  gilding  wheel.  This  wheel  takes  a 
small  roll  of  paper  on  which  is  mounted  a  thin  strip  of  gold,  imita¬ 
tion  gold,  or  aluminium,  from  J  in.  and  upwards  wide,  according 


122 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 

to  requirements.  Continuous  spools  67  ft.  long  can  be  obtained, 
and  it  is  claimed  that  this  mechanical  device  is  more  economical 
than  working  from  the  usual  book  of  leaves.  The  suiface  to  be 
treated  is  painted  with  gold  size  in  the  usual  way. 

The  ordinary  lines  may  also  be  put  in  mechanically  by  a  lining 
machine,  which  consists  of  a  small  square  box  about  §  in.  square 
and  about  2  ins.  high,  which  is  used  as  a  pencil.  It  has^  below  a 
small  wheel  on  to  which  the  colour  from  the  box  flows,  in  short, 
like  a  miniature  tennis-lawn  marker.  By  means  of  a  small  clip  the 
wheel  can  be  made  to  follow  parallel  with  the  edge  of  a  moulding 
when  a  free  edge  offers  itself— a  mud-guard  being  a  good  instance. 
Combinations  of  thin  and  thick  lines  may  be  produced  at  the  same 
time. 


CHAPTER  XII 


STOVE  ENAMELLING  AND  FRENCH  POLISHING 

Stove  Enamelling. — This  process,  in  which  the  painted  article  is 
subjected  to  a  greater  heat  than  in  the  varnishing  room,  is  not  only 
a  quicker  and  cheaper  process,  but  it  is  very  useful  for  those  parts 
affected  by  heat,  such  as  the  engine  bonnet  (especially  the  exhaust 
side),  wheel  rims,  and  horizontal  surfaces,  such  as  portions  of  the 
wings.  In  the  future  the  carriage  builder  may  do  a  considerable 
amount  of  japanning,  or  enamelling  as  it  is  often  called,  and  what 
little  is  done  now  is  usually  sent  out  to  cycle  enamellers  who  work 
for  the  trade.  The  specially  prepared  japan  or  enamel  can  be 
bought  ready  to  use,  and  the  proper  temperature  it  will  withstand 
is,  as  a  rule,  stated  on  the  label. 

Preparing  the  Surface. — The  wing  or  bonnet  has  to  be  dust  and 
grease-proof  and  quite  smooth.  Cycle  frames  are  prepared  by  a 
preliminary  process  of  sweating  by  thoroughly  rubbing  them  over 
with  a  rag  dipped  in  paraffin  or  spirits  of  tar,  and  stoved  for  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  at  a  temperature  of  380  F.  The  motor  body 
builder’s  articles  can  be  prepared  by  rubbing  them  up  on  an  emery 
bob,  which  it  will  easily  pay  to  instal,  as  it  requires  but  little  extra 
power  to  drive  it,  and  does  the  work  far  more  efficiently  than  by 
hand.  After  treatment  on  this  bob,  the  work  is  finished  old  with  a 
cloth  and  leather  bob,  which  can  be  fitted  on  a  separate  machine  or 
substituted  on  the  spindle  for  the  emery  bob-  The  surface,  thus 
perfectly  smooth  and  clean,  is  now  ready  to  receive  the  japan,  which 
may  be  purchased  in  almost  any  colour,  and  generally  has,  as  a 
base,  resin  and  shellac  with  methylated  spirits  or  turpentine. 
When  the  work  is  done  on  a  very  large  scale,  it  is  dipped  in  a 
tank,  but  ’this  will  not  be  within  the  purview  of  the  average  motor 
manufacturer. 


124 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


The  Stove . — The  painted  wing  is  now  hung  on  a  hook  in  the 
stove,  which  is  usually  rectangular,  and  made  of  sheet  iron,  either 
single  or  double  cased.  In  the  first  instance  the  heat  plays  directly 
on  the  interior,  in  the  second  the  heat  is  conveyed  to  a  lining  of 
silicate  of  cotton  or  fireclay,  which  retains  the  heat  and  keeps  up  the 
temperature  of  the  oven  with  less  waste  of  heat.  The  stoves  are 
connected  up  to  the  factory  gas  system,  and  a  larger  meter  may  be 
necessary  if  there  is  a  considerable  quantity  of  constant  work.  A 
good  finish  cannot  be  obtained  in  brick-built  stoves,  heated  with 
flues,  as  they  are  not  only  dirt  creating,  but  give  vent  to  sulphurous 
fumes,  which  spoil  the  surface  of  the  work,  besides  being  more 
expensive  to  heat. 

The  Coats  of  Enamel. — The  turpentine  or  methylated  spirit  is 
first  driven  off  by  the  warmth  of  the  stove,  leaving  a  gummy  residue 
which  flows  owing  to  the  heat  present.  Black  japans  are  heated  to 
about  300°  F.,  and  the  more  delicate  colours  to  about  half  that 
temperature.  A  coat  is  stoved  for  1^  hours  on  an  average,  and 
care  has  to  be  taken  to  let  down  the  heat  gradually,  otherwise  the 
enamel  may  crack.  When  the  job  has  stood  a  day,  a  second  coat 
is  applied  in  the  same  way,  and  after  a  similar  interval,  a  final 
coat  of  a  special  finishing  enamel,  which  has  more  varnish  in  its 
composition  than  those  used  in  the  previous  coats,  is  applied.  A 
first-rate  job  can  be  turned  out  from  the  bare  metal  in  four  or  five 
days,  about  one  quarter  of  the  time  asked  for  in  coach  painting. 

French  Polishing. — A  new  department,  which  has  been  added  to 
many  motor-body  building  establishments,  is  that  devoted  to  French 
polishing,  in  which  are  treated  the  glass  frames,  tool  and  accumu¬ 
lator  boxes,  the  underside  of  roof  extensions  of  limousines  and 
landaulettes,  inside  folding  tables,  wind-screen  frames,  fillets  (fixed 
round  the  inside  edges  of  the  lights)  and  other  items.  The  work 
should  be  done  in  part  of  the  paint  shop,  or  in  a  small  room  which 
can  be  kept  clean,  dry,  and  warm. 

The  Filling -wp. — The  woodwork  to  be  treated  is  glass-papered  off 
with  No.  1  paper  and  dusted  off,  after  which  it  receives  a  coat  of 
filling-up  made  of  plaster  of  Paris  as  a  base,  linseed  oil  or  tallow  as 
a  spreading  medium,  and  some  burnt  umber  or  polish  to  stain  it  to 
the  tone  required.  Bose-pink  is  also  used  as  a  colouring  medium 
for  mahogany  work,  while  yellow  ochre  gives  the  necessary  tint  for 


STOVE  ENAMELLING  AND  FRENCH  POLISHING  125 


ash.  This  filling-up  is  rubbed  on  with  a  rag  and  allowed  to  dry, 
and  if  the  wood  is  an  open -grained  one,  such  as  will  occur  in  a 
whitewood  tool  box,  the  process  is  repeated.  The  filling  up  is 
glass-papered  off,  and  a  coat  of  raw  linseed  oil  applied,  well  rubbed 
in,  and  the  superfluous  oil  wiped  off  and  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly 
for  at  least  two  days.  The  coats  of  polish  now  follow.  This  is 
bought  in  gallon  or  half-gallon  jars,  from  which  it  is  poured  for  use 
into  an  old  wine  bottle  which  has  been  properly  cleaned  and  dried. 
In  one  is  placed  some  white  polish,  and  in  another  the  polish  having 
the  familiar  reddish-brown  tint. 

The  Cotton  Rubber. — The  polisher's  chief  tool  is  a  pad  of  cotton 
wool  bound  in  muslin  or  other  clean  cotton  white  rag,  the  loose  ends 
of  which  are  grasped,  and  the  whole  used  as  a  rubber.  The  polish 
is  not  applied  to  the  outside  of  the  rag,  but  inside  to  the  wool,  and 
allowed  to  percolate  through  during  the  process  of  rubbing.  The 
preliminary  floating  coats  of  polish  may  be  either,  say,  four  alternate 
rubbings  of  each  kind  of  polish,  or  only  a  coat  or  two  of  the  white 
polish  towards  the  end  of  this  first  stage.  The  rubbers  are  kept  in 
tins,  with  tightly  fitting  lids,  so  that  they  may  be  kept  moist.  The 
next  coat  of  polish  follows  with  another  rubber,  after  having  faced 
down  the  first  coat  with  glass-paper.  A  third  rubber  is  also  now 
required,  which  is  moistened  occasionally  with  a  little  linseed  oil. 
This  oil  is  used  to  prevent  the  polish  pad  sticking  to  the  work,  but 
only  sufficient  oil  should  be  used  to  keep  the  polish  pad  moving 
freely,  for  any  excess  will  create  a  want  of  stability  in  the  final  coat 
which  follows.  This  coat  may  be  repeated  for  good  work,  after 
which  the  papered  and  dusted  and  oil-freed  surface  is  given  a  very 
thin  and  light  coat  of  polish.  The  oldest  rubber,  made  of  the  closest 
woven  muslin,  makes  the  best  pad  for  this  stage  of  the  work.  The 
polish  should  only  be  just  damp,  which  is  more  easily  attained,  up 
to  a  certain  point,  when  the  pad,  by  continual  use,  has  the  pores  of 
the  material  clogged  with  extremely  fine  particles  of  the  solid  matter 
in  the  polish,  and  fluffy  portions  from  the  wool  inside,  and  fiom  the 
wear  of  the  muslin  cover.  As  a  rule  the  coats  of  polish  aie  of 
shorter  duration  as  they  proceed,  and  a  circular  motion  is  indulged 
in  where  possible.  About  65°  F.  is  the  best  temperatuie  to  woik 
in,  and  the  air  should  be  as  dry  as  possible,  which  conditions  agree 
with  the  ideal  atmosphere  of  the  paint  shop. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


WEATHER  PROTECTION 

Apart  from  the  fact  that  the  motor  car  is  mechanically  propelled, 
one  great  difference  between  it  and  the  horse  carriage  is  a  greater 
provision  against  the  elements,  which  is  necessary  owing  to  the 
greater  speed  attained,  and  the  longer  journeys  undertaken.  The 
main  accessories  used  for  this  purpose  are  the  many  varieties  of 
wind  screens,  while  protection  from  rain  is  afforded  by  cape  cart 
hoods  in  open  cars,  and  the  usual  headwork  as  already  used  with 
horsed  landaulettes.  The  chassis  is  further  protected  by  means  of 
a  bonnet  and  under  shield,  and  in  some  instances  a  chain  case, 
while  the  cleanliness  of  the  body  is  more  or  less  maintained  by 
wings,  dress-  splash-  or  mud-guards.  The  warmth  and  comfort  of 
the  passengers  is  enhanced  by  the  provision  of  doors  to  all  the 
seats,  and  the  various  articles  of  clothing,  rugs  and  aprons,  which 
have  been  specially  designed  for  the  purpose.  In  limousines  and 
landaulettes  the  driving  seat  is  often  specially  protected  by  a  roof 
extension  canopy. 


Wind  Screens 

There  has  been  a  great  deal  of  attention  paid  to  the  design  of 
wind  screens  during  the  last  few  years,  and  there  are  several  makes  on 
the  market,  each  manufacturer  giving  a  wide  range  of  choice  to  suit 
different  styles  of  bodies,  and  giving  varying  degrees  of  protection. 

The  vital  features  of  a  wind  screen  are  the  means  used  to  attach 
it  to  the  dashboard,  and  the  joints  provided,  whereby  the  position 
of  the  shield  may  be  adjusted. 

Attachment  to  the  Dashboard. — The  usual  f-in.  mahogany  or 
other  wooden  dashboard  supplied  with  the  chassis  is  not  always 


WEATHER  PROTECTION 


127 


an  ideal  foundation  on  which  to  erect  a  heavy  glass  screen,  weighing 
perhaps  85  lbs.,  and  subject  to  additional  strains .  beyond  its  dead 
weight  in  the  shape  of  resisting  the  force  of  the  wind  when  the  car 
is  travelling  rapidly,  and  having  to  support  much  of  the  weight 
beyond  the  central  line  of  support.  Therefore  the  dashboard 
supplied  should  be  carefully  examined  as  to  its  soundness.  The 
scuttle  type  of  dash  being  framed  up  with  at  least  1-in.  stuff 
(probably  ash),  the  question  of  safety  does  not  apply  in  this  instance, 
as  the  flaps  of  the  wind-shield  bracket  can  easily  be  arranged  to 
be  bolted  through  the  framework.  There  is  no  need  to  weaken 
the  dash  by  bolting  on  separate  dash-lamp  brackets,  as  wind-shield 
brackets  may  easily  be  obtained  in  which  lamp  brackets  are  in¬ 
corporated.  The  centres  of  the  two  socket  bearings  should  not  be 
less  than  8  ins.  apart  vertically,  and  the  bottom  of  the  stanchions 
should  have  a  tight  sliding'fit,  in  order  to  eliminate  rattling  as  much 
as  possible  and  to  give  a  firm  hold.  Further  safety  may  be  gained 
by  screwing  on  a  stay  to  the  bottom  half  fiame,  when  a  heavy 
inclined  shield  is  used,  which  stay  is  secured  at  its  bottom  end 
to  a  fitting  screwed  to  the  bottom  framing  01  the  body  bracket. 
If  the  lower  half  of  the  wind  shield  is  adjustable,  then  a  telescopic 

stay  will  be  required. 

Varieties  Used— The  various  varieties  of  wind  shields  may  be 
summarized  as  follows  : — 

(a)  Half  screen,  either  vertical  or  inclined  backwards,  with  or 
without  an  upward  curved  lip  at  the  top. 

(b)  As  above,  but  adjustable. 

(c)  Full  single- jointed  screen,  fixed  straight  lovei  portion  with 

top  half  adjustable  from  centre  of  screen  only. 

(d)  Full  double- jointed  screen  as  above,  but  with  top  half 
adjustable  from  centre,  and  also  independently,  with  or  without 
top  attachment  for  cape  cart  hood,  or  wooden  or  leather  roof  canopy 
extension  of  a  limousine,  landaulette  or  cabriolet. 

(e)  Full  single- jointed  screen,  fixed  backward  inclined  lovei 

portion  with  top  half  variations  as  (c)  and  (d). 

(/)  Full  triple-jointed  screen  with  adjustment  to  lower  half, 

and  top  half  adjustment  as  (d). 

(g)  Full  screen  as  (c)  to  (/),  with  additional  deflector  screen, 
that  is,  a  short  frame,  inclined  upwards  and  forward  to  divert  the 


128 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


air  currents  away  from  the  narrow  opening  left  between  it,  and  the 
edge  of  the  top  inclined  half  of  the  screen,  thereby  providing  an 
undisturbed  gap  for  the  driver  to  look  through. 

(h)  Torpedo  screen,  which  generally  swings  from  the  top  of  a 
pair  of  short  stanchions.  A  full  screen  may  be  used  if  the  scuttle 
dash  is  low,  and  deflector  frames  are  also  fitted. 

(i)  Detachable  screen,  a  type  used  with  closed  bodies  having  a 
roof  extension.  The  stanchions  are  separable  at  the  centre,  the 
junction  being  neatly  hidden  when  the  top  half  is  lemoved,  by 
means  of  a  brass  acorn  screwed  into  the  top  of  the  lower  half  of 
the  tubes.  The  screen  may  also  be  a  double  or  triple  type  as  used 
with  open  cars. 

The  Function  of  a  Screen . — The  object  of  a  wind  screen  is  to 
protect  the  face  and  person  from  the  full  force  of  the  contact  with 
the  air,  and  in  closed  bodies  the  front  windows  should  be  kept 
open  as  much  as  possible,  so  as  to  prevent  back  draughts.  A  wind 
screen  should  shed  the  rain  rapidly,  and  various  appliances  can 
now  be  fitted  so  that  the  glass  can  be  wiped  without  the  driver 
having  to  leave  his  seat. 

Details  of  the  Construction.— The  frame  of  the  shield  may  be 
made  of  mahogany,  walnut,  maple,  cherry  or  other  suitable  timbei. 
The  stiles,  or  sides  of  the  frame,  are  usually  J  in.  thick  to  coincide 
with  the  half-round  or  other  standards  used,  and  it  is  seldom  necessary 
to  make  the  stiles  more  than  lj  ins.  wide.  Top  stiles  are  often 
only  li  ins.,  while  the  side  stiles  of  the  top  half,  which  are  made 
to  swing,  may  be  lj  ins.  to  give  clearance  for  swinging.  The  frame 
is  kept  as  light  as  possible  merely  for  appearance’  sake,  for  glass  is 
heavy  although  it  does  not  give  one  that  impression.  The  normal 
width  of  screen  is  8  ft.  6  ins.,  which  is  satisfactory  so  long  as  it  has 
nothing  wider  than  this  to  protect,  but  with  the  fashion  for  flush¬ 
sided  bodies  having  enclosed  levers,  a  4-ft.  screen  is  not  an  inch 
wider  than  necessary. 

With  the  full  screen  the  centre  wooden  stiles  may  now  be 
regarded  as  obsolete.  The  half  screen,  when  it  has  no  fourth 
stile  to  hold  the  glass  securely  at  the  top  or  bottom,  as  the  case 
may  be,  should  have  the  side  stiles  framed  slightly  taper  so  that 
the  two  free  ends  of  the  side  stiles,  when  framed  to  the  bottom 
stile,  have  a  greater  tendency  to  grip  the  ends  of  the  exposed  edge 


WEATHER  PROTECTION 


129 


of  glass.  The  top  half,  although  without  a  bottom  stile,  is  now 
by  leading  makers  fitted  with  a  piece  of  brass  channel  which  acts 
as  a  safeguard  should  other  attachments  fail.  The  frame  may  be 
further  strengthened  by  screwing  on  round  the  edges  a  half-round 
brass  moulding  and  using  neat  corner  plates,  and  whenever  a 
screen  folds  on  to  another  part,  neat  rubber  buffers  should  be 
fastened.  The  glass,  which  should  be  in.  plate,  is  bedded  in 
felt  or  rubber.  Some  wind  shield  fittings  are  made  of  cast  brass, 
but  the  more  reliable  material — wrought  iron — is,  of  course,  by 
far  the  best,  and  may  be  nickel  or  brass-plated  as  desired. 

The  frames  are  usually  french-polished,  but  they  may  be 
varnished  as  described  under  “  finishing  in  the  natural  wood  ” 
(see  p.  118).  So  far,  few  motorists  care  to  have  them  painted 
to  match  the  body,  while  on  the  other  hand  a  light  appearance 
is  gained  by  using  all  metal  frames.  Apart  from  the  thickness 
and  condition  of  the  dashboard,  its  width  and  shape  are  also  factors 
to  be  considered  when  mounting  a  wind  shield.  If  it  is  narrow, 
the  wind-shield  brackets  will  have  to  be  cranked  if  the  dashboard 
is  not  built  up  in  any  way,  while  if  any  fancy  outline  is  used  to 
the  top,  the  bottom  or  filler  board  or  separate  board  immediately 
below  the  bottom  stile  will  have  to  be  cut  to  shape,  and  if  the 
curve  is  quick  this  will  mean  cutting  into  a  wide  piece  of  timber. 
The  wind  shield,  in  the  opinion  of  Messrs.  Auster,  should  not 
rest  on  this  bottom  board,  which  is  only  used  as  a  make-up  piece 
between  the  shield  and  dashboard.  About  ^  in.  clearance  should 
be  left  which  will  prevent  chattering,  and  the  support  of  the  screen 
may  be  safely  left  to  the  brackets  and  other  fittings. 

Regarding  the  height  of  the  screen,  this  will  be  so  arranged 
that  the  top  of  the  lower  half  may  be  looked  over,  while  the  top 
half  will  vary  somewhat  according  to  the  style  of  body.  The  fact 
that  one  looks  over  the  lower  half  has  suggested  to  some  users 
that  a  heavy  glazed  frame  with  its  attendant  expense  and  danger 
is  often  unnecessary,  so  that  a  light  wooden  canvas  or  similar 
panel  can  be  substituted.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that 
a  view  of  the  front  wings  is  often  obtained  through  the  lower  half 
of  the  screen,  a  matter  of  some  importance  in  judging  width 
when  driving  in  heavy  traffic.  A  half  shield  made  of  aluminium 
can  be  obtained  which  weighs  less  than  14  lbs.  Those  who  are 


I3o  MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 

afraid  of  cuts  arising  from  broken  glass  can  have  the  frames  fitted 
with  1  in.  wired  glass  in  which  the  wire  mesh  is  embedded,  also 
wire  gauze,  of  about  40  mesh  to  the  inch,  may  be  used  by  itself, 
but  neither  gives  such  a  clear  view  as  plain  glass,  while  the  gauze 
is  not  waterproof  at  high  speeds,  and  is  apt  to  mislead  the  chauffeur 
when  driving  at  night.  Bevelled  and  curved  glasses  also  distort 

the  rays  of  light. 

Wind  Screen  Joints.— The  most  important  feature  of  an  adjust¬ 
able  screen,  and  this  type  is  the  one  which  predominates,  is  the 
design  of  joint  used.  This  should  give  as  many  variations  of 
position  as  possible,  so  that  it  may  be  regulated  to  suit  the  height 
of  the  driver.  The  expanding  and  contracting  brake  type  of  joint 
gives  practically  universal  adjustment,  while  the  toothed  type  gives 
a  solid  and  positive  locking  at  as  many  positions  as  there  are  teeth 
in  the  joint.  Some  American  screens  work  on  hydraulic  principles, 
in  which  a  piston  works  in  a  cylinder  filled  with  oil  as  the  shield 
is  moved,  and  this  pattern  has  also  a  universal  adjustment.  Worm 
gearing  is  also  used  and  has  been  found  most  satisfactory.  It  is 
a  decided  advantage  if  the  adjustment  can  be  made  from  one 

side,  or  from  a  central  handle  or  pedal. 

A  wind  shield  absorbs  by  its  resistance  to  the  air  an  appreciable 
amount  of  the  total  horsepower  transmitted  to  the  road  wheels. 
When  the  lower  half  of  a  wind  shield  folds  downwards  it  should 
be  designed  so  that  it  misses  the  steering  wheel,  otherwise  a  fore¬ 
shortening  arrangement  will  have  to  be  used,  or  provision  made 

for  the  shield  to  fold  over  forwards. 

With  a  backward  inclined  screen  extra  strength  is  required  in 

the  side  fittings  at  the  angle  made  with  the  vertical. 

The  triple- jointed  screen  is  a  popular  type  now  on  the 
market.  The  lower  half  is  adjusted  slanting  towards  the  driver, 
so  that  the  wind  is  directed  over  his  head,  while  the  upper  half 
is  swung  forwards  so  that  he  can  see  between  the  opening  of  the 

two  halves. 

In  order  to  reduce  wind  resistance,  shields  have  been  made 
inclined  at  a  vertical  angle,  so  that  the  two  half  screens  meet 
in  a  forward  peak. 

Limousine  shields,  so  far  as  the  top  half  is  concerned,  may  be 
adjusted  by  various  simple  means  when  the  top  half  merely  opens 


WEATHER  PROTECTION 


I3I 

outwards.  The  adjustment  may  consist  of  a  small  collar  sliding  on 
the  stanchion  attached  to  a  metal  arm,  or  the  socket  may  be  on  the 
arm  itself.  Quadrants  of  various  patterns  are  also  used  for  joints 
of  all  types  of  screens. 

Screens  for  the  Hind  Seat . — Wind  shields  for  the  back  seat  may 
consist  of  a  flat  or  curved  shield  fixed  to  the  framework  at  the 
back  of  the  driving  seat  or  the  Auster  adjustable  extending  pattern 
complete  with  knee  aprons,  which  can  be  drawn  closely  to  the  hind 
seat  and  used  as  a  table  also  when  required.  A  back  seat  screen 
may  also  be  fitted  to  lie  on  the  door  as  with  a  front  scuttle-dash 
screen. 


Cape  Cart  Hoods 

The  cape  cart  hood  is  by  no  means  novel,  having  been  utilized 
even  in  the  double  extension  type  on  American  horsed  vehicles  for 
at  least  twenty  years.  The  modern  type  as  applied  to  motor  cars 
has  been  perfected  in  many  details,  a  notable  instance  being  the 
control  of  a  large  double  hood  by  a  single  pair  of  hands. 

Single  Hoods. — The  hood  as  applied  to  the  two-seater  has 
several  little  problems  of  its  own.  Head  room  may  be  reckoned  as 
4  ft.  from  the  seatboard  to  under  the  crown  of  the  highest  stick, 
and  the  rise  of  the  hood  horizontally  as  6  ins.  The  back  stick 
should  sail  out  so  that  the  top  is  at  least  1^  ins.  beyond  the  square 
line  of  the  back  of  the  seat,  and  the  length  of  the  hood  will  be 
governed  by  the  position  of  the  top  half  of  the  glass  screen,  for 
the  peak  of  the  hood  should  extend  in  front  of  the  glass  at  least 
7  ins. 

A  cape  hood  consists  of  bent  wood  (generally  ash)  sticks  or 
bows  screwed  to  neck  plates  or  fingers  which  turn  on  a  fitting  called 
a  body  prop,  which  is  securely  fastened  to  the  framework  of  the 
body,  and  often,  to  give  better  purchase,  is  extended  downwards  to 
the  seat.  The  number  of  sticks  should  not  exceed  three  vertical 
ones,  and  the  front  one  should  be  as  much  out  of  the  gangway  as 
possible.  A  fourth  and  horizontal  stick  supports  the  waterproof 
covering  over  the  gangway,  and  forward  to  keep  the  glass  screen  as 
free  as  possible  from  rain,  so  that  the  driver  may  see  clearly 
through  it  under  all  conditions  of  weather.  This  stick  is  attached 


x32 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


by  a  special  extension  fitting  which  allows  it  to  slide  on  or  fold  over 
the  front  upright  stick,  and  also  to  be  locked  in  position  when  the 
hood  is  extended. 

The  body  prop  centre  is  decided  by  the  position  which  gives  as 
near  as  possible  an  equal  length  to  the  upright  sticks,  and  at 
the  same  time  allows  the  one  with  the  shortest  radius  to  clear 
properly  the  back  rest  of  the  seat.  The  front  horizontal  stick 
slides  or  folds  on  the  front  vertical  one  so  that  the  hood  is 
shortened  as  much  as  possible  when  down.  When  a  third  seat  is 
fitted  at  the  rear  in  a  small  car,  there  are  various  means  by  which 
the  folding  of  the  hood  may  be  kept  within  limits,  a  good  plan 
being  to  slide  a  short  stick  each  side  of  a  central  vertical  one.  If 
side  curtains  are  used,  it  is  important  to  remember  that  a  side  light 
is  a  legal  necessity  in  some  quarters,  especially  the  Metropolitan 
police  area,  and  curtains  which  may  be  attached  from  the  inside 
are  more  convenient  than  if  one  has  to  step  out  of  the  car  and 
button  them  on. 

The  single  hood,  that  is  one  operating  from  one  pair  of  centres, 
may  be  fitted  to  a  side-entrance  phaeton,  but  the  strain  on  the 
fore-structure  means  that  in  time  it  may  become  weakened. 

Double  Extension  Hoods . — As  there  is  more  room  in  which  to 
set  out  the  front  sticks  of  a  double  hood,  the  obstruction  of  the 
front  gangway  is  a  problem  which  has  seldom  to  be  confronted. 
The  main  entrance,  however,  has  to  be  watched,  but  seldom  is  there 
any  excuse  for  anything  but  a  free  headway.  The  normal  length 
of  a  four  or  five-seated  phaeton  should  not  entail  the  use  of  more 
than  four  upright  sticks  with  a  horizontal  one  for  the  peak.  A 
hood  looks  well  balanced  when  the  two  centre  sticks  are  vertical, 
and  the  first  and  fourth  incline  in  opposite  directions  at  equal 
angles.  The  sticks  should  be  set  out,  however,  to  support  the 
fabric  at  equal  distances  rather  than  to  strive  at  any  precise  geome¬ 
trical  arrangement,  the  capable  designer  doing  his  best  to  incorporate 
the  two  considerations  as  much  as  possible. 

The  back  stick  will  sail  out  from  the  square  line  as  with  a  single 
hood,  and  the  two  middle  sticks  must  be  clear  of  the  gangway.  The 
width  over  the  front  props  must  be  the  same  as  the  hind  ones,  which 
will  be  in  relation  to  the  greatest  width  of  the  body,  so  that  the 
whole  can  be  folded  down  from  the  hind  props  and  clear  the  body 


WEATHER  PROTECTION 


133 

panels.  Another  method  is  to  have  shorter  overhanging  props,  and 
to  crank  out  the  fingers  attached  to  the  slats. 

If  a  body  is  longer  than  usual  an  extra  stick  may  be  used  at  the 
rear ;  the  use  of  three  sticks  in  the  front  portion  is  seldom  necessary, 
as  even  with  greater  distances  between  the  dashboard  and  the  front 
of  the  driving  seat  this  is  compromised  by  the  backward  rake  of 
the  wind  shield,  so  that  within  a  little  the  protection  to  be  afforded 
in  all  types  of  bodies  to  the  front  seats  is  practically  the  same  as 
regards  length.  Sticks  may  be  3  feet  apart  at  the  top  without  any 
undue  sagging  in  a  well- strained  hood. 

The  Fittings. — The  fingers  which  secure  the  sticks  to  the  body 
are  generally  attached  to  the  outside  of  the  stick,  so  as  to  give  a 
decorative  effect,  which  may  be  further  enhanced,  for  those  who  are 
fond  of  plenty  of  metalwork  about  the  car,  by  the  use  of  double 
shell  joints,  in  which  plates  are  screwed  both  back  and  front  of  the 
stick,  the  inside  set  of  plates  being  merely  screwed  on,  and  not 
attached  in  any  way  to  the  main  turning  centre.  A  similar  effect 
is  gained  by  the  use  of  tubular  fittings. 

The  two-stick  joint  has  usually  the  outside  plate  hinged  and 
cranked  at  the  lower  end  to  the  inside  straight  one.  Sometimes  a 
third  plate  may  be  hinged  to  the  next  one,  but  the  less  centres  in 
the  design  the  better.  The  front  fitting  is  supplied  with  a  butterfly 
nut,  or  other  device,  so  that  it  may  be  easily  detached  from  the  front 
props  after  the  nut  or  other  fastening  has  been  loosened. 

At  the  rear  the  hood  joint  is  provided  with  an  ear  into  which 
the  spindle  of  the  front  joint  is  inserted  when  the  hood  is  lowered. 
Apart  from  a  hind  centre  there  is  a  third  prop  well  flapped  to  the 
elbow  of  the  body,  which  forms  the  resting-place  of  the  hood  when 
down,  and  it  must  be  long  enough  to  take  the  full  width  of  the 
hood.  All  the  six  body  props  are  usually  cranked  into  sockets  and 
retained  by  nuts,  so  that  when  required  the  hood  may  be  entirely 
removed.  The  height  of  the  hood-rest  will  also  decide  the  angle  of 
the  hood  when  down.  The  sticks  of  the  hood  should  be  provided 
with  separators  which  will  keep  the  sticks  apart  when  down,  and 
these  separators  should  be  made  so  that  the  sticks  are  held  firmly 
as  well  as  kept  apart.  The  whole  set  of  sticks  may  be  strapped  to 
the  prop  through  a  neat  slot  in  the  prop,  or  a  special  clip  may  be 
used,  while  the  bed  of  the  prop  should  be  padded  with  leather  or 


1 34 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


rubber.  A  cover  to  slip  on  should  be  provided  so  as  to  keep  the 
fabric  of  the  hood  clean,  as  one  of  the  duties  of  a  hood,  especially 
when  down,  is  to  act  as  a  dust  screen,  which  it  generally  does 
effectually. 

The  Covering  and  its  Fixing. — The  mohair,  cashmere,  twill,  or 
other  waterproof  material  is  laid  on  the  sticks  in  three  portions — a 
central  piece  lying  on  the  flat  horizontal  portion  of  the  bows,  and 
two  side  vertical  pieces,  the  sticks  being  kept  apart  at  their  proper 
distances  by  means  of  webbing  nailed  on.  The  top  flat  piece  of 
twill  overlaps  the  side  pieces  about  1^  ins.,  and  the  bottom  edge  of 
the  side  pieces  is  turned  over  and  hemmed,  and  strengthened  by  a 
leather  binding.  The  back  curtain  extends  from  the  junction  of 
the  side  pieces  with  the  back  stick,  and  is  in  one  piece,  cut  out 
after  sewing  in  the  back  light,  and  hemmed  and  bound  as  before. 
The  webbing  running  from  the  tops  of  the  bows  is  brought 
down  to  the  top  of  the  back  panel,  doubled  over,  and  fastened  to  a 
pair  of  turn-buttons  which  hold  the  ends,  and  the  back  curtain  as 
well.  The  fabric  of  the  hood  is  held  to  the  sticks  by  means  of  brass 
rose  head  screws  and  washers,  and  usually  a  piece  of  beading  is 
used  instead  on  the  hind  stick,  a  method  also  adopted  for  retaining 
the  valence  on  the  front  extension  stick.  The  front  retaining  straps 
are  fastened  to  the  inside  of  this  stick  by  screws  and  washers. 
Brass  beading  is  sometimes  used  as  a  decoration  and  means  of 
fastening  to  all  the  sticks,  and  in  a  few  cases  the  bows  may  be 
strengthened  on  the  front  edge  with  light  iron  half-round  plates. 

The  Means  for  Keeping  the  Hood  Open. — Outside  joints,  in  many 
cases,  extend  from  the  front  stick  to  the  hind  body  prop.  In  a  four- 
stick  head  there  will  be  top  props  screwed  to  the  first  three  sticks, 
which  provide  bearings  for  each  of  the  joint  ends.  The  second  and 
third  top  props  will  differ  from  the  first  or  front  one  in  having  a 
longer  neck,  as  they  have  to  each  carry  two  joint  ends.  Between 
each  pair  of  joint  ends  a  knuckle  joint  is  welded  in  to  the  required 
length,  so  that  when  the  head  is  collapsed,  the  6  ft.  or  so  of  ironwork 
each  side  may  be  snugly  folded  down  by  the  side  of  the  set  of  sticks, 
and  when  the  hood  is  up  these  knuckles  lock  it  into  position.  In 
either  a  single  or  double  extension  hood  the  plotting  out  of  the 
knuckle  joints  requires  a  little  planning  out  in  order  that  the 
knuckles,  when  hinged  right  back,  shall  cause  each  pair  of  joint 


WEATHER  PROTECTION  135 

ends  to  lie  at  the  right  angle,  and  when  up,  shall  be  slightly 

eccentric  so  as  to  form  a  “  snap  ”  fit. 

Theoretically,  the  outside  joints  should  keep  the  set  of  bows 
taut,  but  they  are  seldom  relied  upon  to  do  this  unaided.  They  aie 
made  much  lighter  than  the  patterns  fitted  to  leather  hoods,  and 
considering  the  length,  width,  and  height  of  many  of  the  super¬ 
structures  carried  on  open  cars,  it  is  more  economical  both  in 
weight  and  cost  to  provide  a  pair  of  front  straps  (or,  better  still, 
neat  wire  ropes  with  strap  ends  which  will  not  stretch  nearly  so 
much),  which  are  fastened  to  the  chassis  front  spring  dumbs,  or  to 
staples  rivetted  into  one  of  the  flaps  of  the  front,  wing  stays.  If 
the  back  straps  are  used  in  addition  to  the  webbing,  it  should  be 
possible  to  dispense  with  the  first  'and  last  pair  of  joints.  The 
hood  is  also  fastened  in  many  cases  to  the  top  of  the  wind-screen, 
either  by  short  straps,  a  narrow  curtain,  or  a  locking  arrangement 

between  the  bow  and  the  frame  of  the  shield. 

A  handsome,  though  naturally  a  more  expensive  finish,  is 
obtained  by  means  of  a  leather  covering  in  lieu  of  the  water¬ 
proof  twill.  Double  enamelled  leather  is  also  used,  which  has 
the  outside  finished  black,  and  the  inside  to  match  the  tiimming, 
but  this  material  is  liable  “to  bag”  after  its  first  stretching 
on  the  sticks.  Such  a  covering  is  easily  cleaned,  and  those  who 
attempt  to  clean  waterproof  twills  with  petrol  should  remembei  that 
the  rubber  on  which  the  material  depends  for  its  vateipioofing 
dissolves  in  that  liquid. 

“  One-man  Hooch:’— There  are  already  some  six  or  seven  “  one- 
man  ”  hoods  now  before  the  motoring  world,  all  more  or  .  less 
easily  manipulated  from  one  side  at  a  time,  or  in  front  by  a  single 
pair  of  hands.  The  lazy  tongs  principle  is  the  prevailing  principle 
in  some ;  in  others,  the  front  portion  slides  down  the  front  stick  of 
the  hind  portion.  Considering  the  slightly  increased  cost,  the 
motorist  is  well  advised  to  have  a  good  pattern  of  one-man  hood 
fitted,  bearing  in  mind  the  advantages  gained,  and  the  tiifling 
additional  complication  necessary  for  their  working. 

Divisible  Hoods.— Another  type  of  hood  is  that  which  is  divisible, 
so  that  the  front  and  hind  seats  may  be  protected  independently. 
This  may  be  brought  about  by  the  use  of  two  separate  hoods,  or  the 
covering  is  made  to  unbutton  in  the  centre,  and  a  drop  curtain  is 


i36 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


provided  behind  the  front  seat,  an  accessory  which  is  often  added 
to  the  normal  type  of  double  extension  hood.  These  separate  hoods 
may  be  useful  when  a  fair  amount  of  driving  is  done  with  the  back 
portion  empty,  but,  then,  that  is  perhaps  a  proof  that  a  two-seated 
car  should  have  been  ordered  in  the  first  instance.  The  divided 
hood  is  also  used  when  the  hind  part  of  the  body  is  detachable. 

Curtains . — Side  curtains  are  not  always  included  in  the  price 
of  a  cheap  hood,  so  that  when  paying  less  than  £15  for  the  covering 
of  a  car,  it  is  as  well  to  know  of  what  the  specification  consists. 
Curtains  are  a  comfort  on  a  wet  and  windy  day,  but  they  cannot 
by  any  means  be  considered  an  ornament.  The  top  and  bottom  of 
each  curtain  should  be  well  hemmed  and  bound  with  leather,  and 
will  be  fastened  by  turn-buttons,  and  should  well  cover  the  door 
opening,  and  allow  of  easy  entrance  and  exit,  the  same  remark 
applying  to  the  front  gangway.  Celluloid  lights  should  be  as 
small  as  possible,  as  the  larger  the  light  the  sooner  it  will  crack, 
and  look  shabby  if  the  curtains  are  rolled  up. 

Vital  fastenings,  such  as  prop  nuts,  butterfly  nuts,  and  turn- 
buttons  (with  screws  to  fit),  should  be  carried  as  spares,  as  a  lost 
one  may  mean  a  useless  hood.  Probably,  in  the  future,  more  of 
these  fastenings  will  be  provided  with  lock  nuts,  or  split  pins,  so  as 
to  obviate  any  anxiety  in  this  direction. 

For  hot  countries  the  cape  cart  hood  with  rubber  interlined 
fabric  is  hardly  suitable  as  a  sunshade.  Either  a  lighter  material 
should  be  used,  or  a  sunshade  fitted  much  after  the  style  as  is 
sometimes  seen  attached  to  a  lady’s  driving  phaeton.  If  the  shade 
is  red  underneath,  it  is  said  that  the  protection  from  the  sun  is 
rendered  more  effective. 


Wings 

There  is  room  for  improvement  in  the  majority  of  wings 
or  mudguards  fitted  to  motor  cars,  and  future  designs  should  be 
constructed  more  with  the  purpose  in  view  of  keeping  mud  from 
coming  in  contact  with  the  body  and  chassis,  also  from  the  other 
vehicles  and  users  of  the  road,  and  less  for  ornamental  purposes. 
The  wings  of  the  horse-drawn  carriage  are  not  strictly  an  addition 


WEATHER  PROTECTION 


i37 


for  usefulness  only,  for  in  many  instances  advantage  is  taken  of 
graceful  outline  and  highly  polished  surface  to  increase  the  beautiful 
appearance  of  the  equipage,  and  it  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  these 
styles  have  been  largely  adopted  without  sufficient  modification 
that  one  hears  so  much  grumbling  on  the  part  of  the  motorist  that 
the  mudguards  fulfil  their  function  but  indifferently. 

Wings  may  be  constructed  of  sheet  iron  or  steel,  of  wood,  01  a 
wrought-iron  frame  covered  with  patent  leather  top  and  bottom. 
Aluminium  was  used  to  a  considerable  extent  for  this  purpose  when 
that  metal  was  at  the  height  of  its  popularity  as  a  panel  material, 
but  experience  has  shown  that  it  wears  badly  at  the  bolt  holes 
where  the  wing  stay  flaps  are  fastened,  and  at  any  other  point 
where  there  is  likely  to  be  vibration,  or  a  continued  strain. 

Wooden  wings  made  of  birch  or  walnut,  although  found  satis¬ 
factory  under  the  less  arduous  conditions  of  horsed-carriage  work, 
in  private  car  work  have  been  found  liable  to  split  unless  scientifically 
stayed,  and  only  the  best  selected  timber  used.  Low  cost  and 
weight  are  two  great  assets  with  the  wood  wing. 

Flanges  and  Side  Guards.— The  most  popular  type  of  wing  is 
the  one  made  of  sheet  steel,  generally  of  the  lead-coated  variety , 
is  cut,  bent,  and  hand-hammered  to  the  required  shape,  and  any 
swaging  or  moulding  required  produced  by  rolling  the  wing  in  a 
special  machine.  The  edges  are  strengthened  by  binding  the  edge 
round  a  stout  iron  wire.  Modern  types  are  provided  with  a  flanged 
edge  forming  a  lip  from  1  in.  to  2  ins.  deep,  so  that  the  mud-retaining 
properties  of  the  wing  are  increased.  In  addition,  side  guards 
between  the  inside  of  the  wing  and  chassis  are  usually  fitted,  which 
may  be  rivetted  on,  like  the  flange,  or  else  hammered  in  the  one 
piece.  With  inside  guards  some  loss  of  accessibility  to  the  oil 
and  grease  caps  of  the  springs,  axles,  and  brake  adjustments 
may  be  experienced,  and  if  this  is  found  to  be  excessive  small 
inspection  doors  should  be  fitted.  Care  has  also  to  be  taken  to 
ensure  that  the  full  locking  of  the  front  stub  axles  is  not  inteifeied 

with. 

Mud  Streams—  Efficient  mudguards  can  only  be  constructed 
when  designers  appreciate  to  the  full  extent  how  the  mud  streams 
are  created,  and  what  path  they  are  most  likely  to  travel  in  as  the 
vehicle  moves  along.  The  front  wheels  have  a  wider  range  of 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


mud-throwing  owing  to  the  various  angles  which  they  take  up  under 
the  influence  of  the  steering  wheel.  When  they  are  running  parallel 
with  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  car,  a  spray  of  mud  is  being  thrown 
off  tangentially  at  all  points  of  the  circumference  of  the  wheel  and 
at  the  point  of  contact  mud  is  being  forced  out  sideways  and 
upwards  in  small  showers  on  each  side,  more  or  less  at  right  angles 
to  the  direction  of  the  car’s  travel. 

The  first-mentioned  streams  of  mud  may  be  caught  by  having 
a  wide  wing  with  a  lb  ins.  flange  all  round  the  edge  facing  the 
onlooker,  and  round  the  front  and  back  until  it  meets  the  side 
guard.  Apart  from  this,  a  leather  weighted  flap,  the  same  width  as 
the  wing,  should  hang  down  from  the  lower  extremity  of  the  wing 
so  that  only  4  ins.  clearance  is  left  between  this  flap  and  the  ground. 
A  leather  flap  is  safer  than  a  stiff  metal  one  when  the  road  clearance 
is  so  small.  In  front  the  wing  should  follow  the  shape  of  the  wheel 
to  about  1  in.  beyond  the  line  drawn  at  right  angles  to  the  ground 
line  touching  the  front  of  the  tyre.  The  wing  should  be  as  wide 
and  the  flanges  as  deep  as  possible  without  offending  the  artistic 
susceptibilities  of  the  owner.  Possibly  in  the  future,  with  wider 
tracks,  it  will  be  practicable  to  allow  the  wings  to  move  with  the 
front  stub  axles. 

As  the  car  proceeds  along  the  road,  the  radiator  and  spokes  of 
the  wheels  cut  up  the  air  currents  met  with  and  also  those  produced 
by  the  car’s  forward  motion,  giving  a  large  number  of  diverging 
currents,  so  that  the  more  generous  the  front  opposing  surface  of 
the  wings  the  less  chance  there  is  of  the  wind  currents  bespattering 
the  car.  The  air  currents  which  the  car  meets  rather  than  those 
which  it  creates  are  the  more  difficult  to  allow  for.  The  side  stream 
of  mud  produced  at  the  contact  of  the  wheels  with  the  road  can  be 
effectually  intercepted  by  means  of  a  splashguard,  which  consists 
of  a  valence  of  skirt  of  interwoven  spirals  of  wire  hung  on  a  metal 
frame  which  is  mounted  on  bearings  fixed  to  the  axle  cap  of  the 
wheel.  This  arrangement  could  be  attached  on  each  side  of  the 
wheel,  in  order  to  intercept  the  mud  streams  on  either  side,  but 
would  no  doubt  be  considered  unsightly  on  a  private  car. 

Flanges  on  the  wings  also  prevent,  to  a  large  extent,  the  mud 
being  blown  off  the  guards  on  to  the  body  panels  beyond. 

The  hind  wheels  are  always  in  the  same  relation  to  the  chassis, 


WEATHER  PROTECTION 


i39 


so  that  the  direction  of  the  mud  streams  may  be  anticipated  with  a 
fair  amount  of  exactness.  The  front  of  the  wheel  is  also  better 
protected,  as  the  hind  wings  have  also  to  perform  the  office  of  dress 
guards  to  the  main  entrance,  so  that  the  windage  of  the  car  is  not 
a  serious  matter  to  be  contended  with.  The  outline  of  the  wings 
should  follow  round  with  the  shape  of  the  tyre  to  about  3  ins.  beyond 
the  centre  of  the  wheel,  and  side  guards  should  be  provided, 
especially  if  the  body  is  kept  well  within  the  wheel  base,  and  the 
wheels  are  well  beyond  the  side  surfaces  of  the  body.  This  is  more 
important  with  small  cars,  where  a  hind  seat  may  be  quickly  covered 
in  mud  if  this  attachment  is  not  provided. 

Motor  body  builders  have  been  slow  to  adopt  the  effective  cycle 
mudguard  pattern,  for  the  dome-shaped  guard  cannot  be  said  to  be 
fitted  to  the  majority  of  cars.  It  is  graceful  in  appearance,  presents 
a  highly  reflective  surface  for  the  varnish,  and  is  more  handsome 
than  a  flat  wing  with  a  square  flanged  edge.  The  time  will  not  be 
far  distant,  perhaps,  when  designers  will  be  able  to  attach  the  wings 
directly  to  the  axle  arm  as  in  a  cycle,  or  a  similar  way,  so  that  the 
necessary  clearance  may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Detachable  Wings . — Already  wings  are  made  detachable,  as  the 
best  type  of  mudguard,  by  reason  of  its  close  association  with  the 
tyre,  is  necessarily  badly  placed  for  tyre  removal.  The  prevailing 
type  of  detachable  wing  is  seen  at  its  best  when  one  nut  and  one 
socket  controls  both  stays.  A  pattern  where  only  the  wing  is 
detached  and  the  stays  left  provides  an  element  of  danger  to  the 
tyre  remover  as  well  as  giving  very  little  extra  accessibility.  Wings 
with  fixed  side  guards  must,  of  course,  lift  in  order  to  be  detached 
from  the  car. 

Side  shields  are  seldom  brought  forward  far  enough  in  front,  the 
excuse  being  that  the  lamps  are  interfered  with,  but  it  would  be  a 
better  plan  to  keep  the  body  as  clean  as  possible  by  efficient  side 
guards  and  mount  the  lamps  on  the  top  of  the  wings  by  a  bracket 
forged  to  a  reinforced  wing  stay.  When  Stepney  wheels  are  being 
used,  an  extra  width  of  canvas  mudguard  can  easily  be  arranged  to 
clip  on  to  the  permanent  portion.  The  present  types  of  wings  add 
to  the  wind  resistance  of  the  car,  so  that  one  has  largely  to  choose 
between  dirt  and  pace. 


140 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


Step  Guards 

Every  modern  car  is  also  fitted  witlTguards  between  the  back  edge 
of  the  long  side  step  and  the  side  member  of  the  chassis.  If  this  is 
made  of  sheet  steel,  it  can  be  finished  off  more  neatly  than  any 
expensive  array  of  patent  leather,  which  in  a  short  space  of  time  will 
sag  and  buckle  and  present  a  surface  of  countless  broken  reflections, 
but  the  metal  shield  is  said  by  some  to  be  a  noisy  accessory  and 
also  a  bar  to  accessibility. 

The  wings  and  steps  by  their  proper  design  and  additional  guards 
should  leave  little  work  for  the  undershield  to  do. 

Undershields 

The  undershield  may  be  pressed  out  in  one  piece  with  the  side 
members  of  the  frame,  or  may  be  attached  to  suitable  lugs  provided 
and  fastened  by  fly  nuts  so  as  to  be  easily  disengaged.  The 
tendency  of  engine,  clutch,  gearbox  and  transmission  design  to-day 
is  towards  enclosing  the  moving  parts  more,  so  that  little  is  really 
exposed  which  might  be  easily  injured  by  flying  grit  and  mud. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  with  the  unit  type  of  construction. 
The  shield  seldom  extends  further  back  than  the  gear-box,  and  if 
well  designed  should  prevent  dust-raising  to  a  large  extent,  and 
when  the  fan  is  incorporated  in  the  flywheel  its  close  fitting 
becomes  a  necessity,  so  that  all  air  is  properly  drawn  through  the 
radiator. 


Bonnets 

The  bonnet  is  an  important  weather  shield,  and  is  made  of  sheet 
steel  resting  on  suitable  flanges  behind  the  radiator,  and  in  front  of 
the  dashboard.  Most  types  hinge  upwards  each  side  from  a  central 
rod,  and  the  whole  can  be  removed  when  a  prolonged  inspection  of 
the  engine  is  necessary.  Louvres  or  ventilators  have  disappeared 
to  a  large  extent  from  bonnets  now,  and  with  modern  cooling  systems 
it  becomes  necessary,  for  the  efficient  working  of  the  fan,  to  make 
the  bonnet  as  airtight  as  possible.  With  a  dashboard  radiator,  the 


WEATHER  PROTECTION 


141 

more  graceful  Renault  and  C.G.V.  style  is  being  revived,  which  is 
hinged  on  the  top  edge  by  the  dashboard,  so  that  an  upward  swing 
immediately  exposes  the  whole  engine.  A  felt  or  leather  pad  should 
be  provided  for  the  bottom  flange  to  rest  on,  so  as  to  reduce  noise  as 
much  as  possible,  and  a  hinged  stay  should  be  provided  with  the 
Renault  type  to  keep  it  erect  when  open. 

The  shape  of  the  bonnet  goes  a  long  way  towards  expressing  the 
individuality  of  the  car,  but  nowadays  differences  are  more  minute, 
and  it  becomes  more  difficult  every  day  for  one  to  distinguish 
between  the  various  makes  of  cars  from  this  part  of  the  car  alone. 

A  large  bonnet  does  not  necessarily  conceal  a  powerful  engine ; 
sometimes  it  is  provided  to  give  that  impression;  still  this  type 
of  vanity  has  its  compensations  since  increased  engine  accessibility 
is  obtained. 


Chain=cases 

Chain-cases,  owing  to  the  unpopularity  of  the  chain-driven 
car,  even  for  public  service  work  now,  are  seldom  found  on  new 
cars.  Should  the  motorist  have  a  Mercedes,  Berliet,  or  Delaunay 
Belleville,  he  may  purchase  a  chain-case  much  on  the  lines  of 
the  cycle  pattern,  made  in  two  halves,  and  easily  fitted,  and  so 
arranged  that  the  chain  always  runs  in  a  small  bath  of  oil,  making 
the  running  of  the  chain  and  sprocket  silent  and  smooth.  Lubri¬ 
cation  should  be  possible  without  having  to  unfasten  any  inspection 
door. 


Body  Design  and  Weather  Protection 

The  design  of  the  body  itself  is  the  main  factor  in  weather 
protection.  The  higher  the  sides  of  the  body,  especially  the  front 
portions,  the  cosier  the  seats  will  be,  although  the  body  may  form, 
if  not  ventilated,  a  trap  for  warm  petrol-flavoured  air  issuing 
from  between  the  floor  boards. 

It  is  only  during  the  last  three  or  four  years  that  doors  of 
any  height  have  been  fitted  to  the  driving  seat.  The  fully  enclosed 
car  is  the  last  word  in  weather  protection,  and  unless  the  driver 
is  able  to  get  a  good  look-out  on  all  sides,  and  does  not  shut  all 


142 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


the  windows  and  ventilators  so  as  to  be  able  to  hear  approaching 
traffic,  there  is  an  element  of  danger  in  the  isolation  so  afforded. 

Clothing 

The  remaining  means  of  protection  from  the  elements  is  the 
special  varieties  of  clothing  provided.  Wind  screens  have  done 
away  with  the  need  for  unsightly  goggles,  and  all  who  ride  in  closed 
cars  do  not  require  to  be  dressed  in  any  particular  way.  The 
majority  of  motorists  have  a  decided  preference  for  fresh  air  and 
consequently  open  cars,  and  when  one  is  moving  along  the  road 
at  twenty  miles  per  hour  on  a  cold  day  against  a  head  wind,  or 
on  a  dry  summer  day  on  a  dusty  road,  extra  clothing  of  some 
kind  is  necessary  to  protect  one  against  cold  air  or  dust,  as  the 
case  may  be,  which  by  reason  of  the  prolonged  high  speed,  are 
driven  against  the  body  with  far  more  force  and  persistence,  and 
therefore  power  of  penetration,  than  with  slower  forms  of 
traction. 

The  ideal  garment  gives  protection  from  wet,  wind,  and  dust 
with  a  minimum  of  weight  and  effective  ventilation.  The  ordinary 
mackintosh  does  not  satisfy  these  requirements,  neither  does  a 
heavy,  thick,  fur-lined  coat.  Materials  can  now  be  obtained 
which  are  proved  in  the  weaving  and  will  withstand  consider¬ 
able  variations  in  temperature  without  injury.  The  stuff  being 
self-ventilating,  the  garment  can  be  worn  at  all  times  without 
discomfort.  Motor  clothing  for  rough  weather  requires  a  closely 
fitting  collar,  and  many  prefer  an  overall  which  can  be  slipped 
over  the  head  so  that  there  are  no  front  openings  to  let  the  wet 
in,  but  this  again  can  be  combated  by  ingenious  systems  of  double 
and  side  buttoning.  Headgear  should  be  supple  and  close-fitting, 
and  gloves  of  the  gauntlet  type  are  preferable  in  windy  weather. 
If  an  apron  be  used,  this  should  be  properly  shaped  so  that  it 
falls  naturally  between  the  legs  and  gives  comfort  in  working  the 
pedals. 

Clothing  for  ladies  will  follow  along  similar  lines,  although 
more  latitude  will  be  given  for  decorative  effect.  Collars  and  cuffs 
will  be  in  contrast,  obtained  by  using  a  different  colour,  or  the 
same  colour  in  a  material  of  different  texture.  The  range  of 


WEATHER  PROTECTION 


H3 


linings  and  trimmings  will  naturally  be  a  wide  one.  Full  pro¬ 
tection  is  required  for  the  dress  underneath,  while  the  outer  coat 
should  be  easily  slipped  off,  so  that  a  dainty  appearance  may  soon 
be  obtained  when  paying  calls.  The  ingenuity  of  the  motor 
milliner  has  placed  before  the  lady  motorist  many  styles  of  neat 
headgear,  which  do  not  easily  spoil  in  wind  or  rain,  while  the 
veil  is  an  indispensable  item  and  is  often  used  in  conjunction  with 
ordinary  headgear.  Muffs  should  be  of  leather  or  other  mateiial 
not  easily  spotted  by  the  rain,  and  if  the  lady  is  a  driver  flat  heels 
should  be  found  on  her  boots  or  shoes. 


CHAPTER  XIY 


INTERIOR  ILLUMINATION 

Roof  Lamps. — The  high-class  limousine  or  landaulette  body  is 
always  furnished  with  some  scheme  of  interior  electric  lighting,  as 
these  types  of  cars  do  a  considerable  amount  of  evening  work.  A 
specially  flat  and  neat  type  of  roof  lamp  has  been  designed  which 
can  be  let  into  and  screwed  to  the  wooden  framework  of  the  folding 
head,  or  some  convenient  part  of  the  fixed  roof.  The  back  framing 
in  limousine  bodies  is  also  utilized  for  lamp  fixing,  and  has  the 
advantage  of  throwing  the  light  over  the  shoulders  of  the  passengers, 
should  they  desire  to  read,  while  bodies  with  cape  cart  hoods  have 
special  lamps  attached  to  the  bows  of  the  hood.  The  amount  of 
light  available  is  from  two  candle  power  and  upwards.  A  four-volt 
lamp,  or  lamps,  giving  four  candle-power,  is  ample  considering  the 
floor  area  of  the  car,  and  equals  the  amount  of  illumination 
generally  provided  in  a  medium-sized  room.  If  one  lamp  only  is 
used  this  will  be  placed  centrally  overhead,  and  as  far  back  as 
possible ;  two  lamps  can  be  placed  equidistant  overhead,  or  in  each 
corner  of  the  back  of  a  limousine ;  three  lamps  may  be  considered 
the  maximum,  one  being  set  out  centrally  overhead,  and  two  in  the 
back  panel  as  before  mentioned.  The  metallic  filament  lamp  is  now 
available  for  all  classes  of  motor  lamps,  and  together  with  the 
carbon  filament  patterns,  throws  a  minimum  of  shadow.  Motor 
lamps  having  to  undergo  a  certain  amount  of  vibration  should  have 
the  delicate  filaments  well  supported.  The  lamps  fixed  in  the  roof 
are  made  flat  and  furnished  with  a  nickel  front  to  match  the  other 
furniture  and  fittings  used  inside,  or  they  can  be  had  in  various 
colours  to  match  the  upholstery.  The  lamps  for  the  back  panel 
are  adapted  to  the  rounded  or  angular  position  which  they  are 
called  upon  to  occupy.  A  strong  light  may  be  more  economically 


INTERIOR  ILLUMINATION 


H5 


obtained  by  using  two  small  bulbs  of  equal  power  in  one  lamp. 
The  front  of  the  lamp  should  be  removable  by  the  unloosening  of 
two  screws,  so  that  the  filament  when  burnt  out  can  be  readily 
replaced  by  a  fresh  bulb.  Spares  of  this  character,  if  carried  on 
the  car,  should  be  kept  snugly  in  small  boxes  well  lined  with 
cotton  wool,  or  similar  substance.  When  touring  a  new  bulb  of  the 
exact  size  is  not  always  easy  to  purchase  without  delay.  The 
motorist  in  most  cases  leaves  the  coachbuilder  to  arrange  the  lamps, 
but  if  not  their  position  must  be  decided  before  the  trimming  starts. 

Wiring. — The  wiring  of  the  lamps  will  be  hidden,  as  much  as 
possible,  and  let  into  the  pillars  and  other  parts  where  convenient, 
so  as  to  make  a  neat  job.  The  switches  should  be  handy,  generally 
somewhere  on  the  elbow  towards  the  door,  and  arranged  to  control 
one  or  a  set  of  lamps  as  desired.  If  the  body  has  a  detachable  top, 
the  wiring  system  will  entail  the  use  of  a  plug  (a  neat  two-pin 
ebonite  type  being  usually  adopted),  so  that  the  upper  wiring  may 
be  disconnected  on  the  side  (usually  the  off)  which  the  wiring  is 
run  up,  or  a  single-pin  or  pole  plug  may  be  used  on  either  side,  as 
an  alternative. 

Lighting  Accumulators. — The  source  of  power  will  be  an  accumu¬ 
lator  corresponding  in  voltage  to  the  greatest  individual  lamp 
voltage,  and  of  amperage  according  to  the  number  of  hours’  light 
desired  without  recharging.  Accumulators  are  heavy  accessories, 
but  it  is  economical  to  have  as  large  a  one  as  possible.  A  4- volt 
accumulator  measures  9  ins.  by  5^  ins.  by  8J  ins.  and  will  light 
three  4-candle-power  lamps  (about  the  same  voltage  and  0*5  to  0*9 
amperage)  for  twenty  hours.  An  accumulator  should  always  be 
discharged  with  plenty  of  margin,  and  in  this  particular  instance 
the  accumulator  will  be  recharged  at  least  fifty  times  before  a  set  of 
reliable  lamps  will  be  burnt  out,  for  a  good  brand  should  last  1000 
hours. 

The  capacity  of  an  accumulator  depends  on  the  particular  make, 
and  the  area  of  the  plates,  counting  both  sides,  a  rough  estimate 
being  1  ampere  per  14  sq.  ins.  of  positive  plate.  The  discharge 
rate,  that  is,  so  many  amperes  per  hour,  is  another  important  factor, 
and  will  be  stated  on  the  accumulator  label.  The  total  amperage 
of  the  battery  divided  by  the  discharge  rate  will  give  the  number 
of  hours  it  may  be  used.  Experiment  shows  that  the  capacity 

L 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


146 

increases  as  the  discharge  decreases,  that  is  to  say,  that  if  the 
output  is  lessened  the  capacity  increases  beyond  the  proportional 
advantage  at  once  apparent,  also  less  amperage  is  given  out  than 
has  to  be  charged  up  when  renewing  the  accumulators,  the  average 
difference  being  about  25  per  cent,  to  30  per  cent. 

If  a  lamp  is  worked  at  a  higher  voltage  (overloaded)  than  its 
•  stated  capacity,  it  absorbs  more  watts  (amperage  X  volts),  and 
gives  increased  illumination,  but  at  the  expense  of  the  life  of  the 
lamp.  Working  a  lamp  below  its  normal  capacity  has  an  opposite 
effect. 

It  is  useful  to  remember  that  lamp  bulbs  burn  economically  at 
an  efficiency  of  1  watt  per  candle,  so  that  a  60  ampere  4  volt 
accumulator,  capable  of  an  output  of  240  watts,  will  light  two  4-volt 
4-candle-power  lamps  for  30  hours,  but  this  is  on  the  safe  side,  as  a 
4-volt  0*6  ampere,  festoon  bulb  Osram  metallic  filament  lamp  will 
usually  be  listed  at  3 -candle-power  and  not  4  x  0-6  =  2*4. 

,  The  sizes  of  accumulators  vary  according  to  the  maker,  but  as 
the  area  of  the  plates  and  their  number  decide  the  amperage,  the 
cubical  content  is  the  safest  comparison  to  make,  if  efficiency  is 
studied  from  the  point  of  room  taken  up. 

Regarding  the  position  of  the  accumulator,  it  would  appear,  on 
the  face  of  it,  to  be  the  simplest  plan  to  carry  it  in  the  hind  locker 
under  the  seat,  with  a  neat  wooden  guard  screwed  to  the  floor,  so  as 
to  keep  it  fast  in  its  proper  position,  and  to  prevent  breakage  of 
the  leads  or  wires  as  well  as  injury  to  the  accumulator  and  its 
connections. 

The  body,  so  fitted,  when  detached  takes  all  its  wiring  with  it, 
but  it  has  been  recommended,  by  Messrs.  C.  A.  Vandervell,  that 
the  long  side  step  is  a  better  position  for  the  accumulator  in 
its  waterproof  box.  In  this  case  a  two-pin  plug  is  used  between 
chassis  and  body  at  a  point  near  the  bottom  of  the  door.  As  the 
wiring  passing  from  the  body  is  more  exposed  than  in  the  system 
first  described  it  should  be  further  protected  by  passing  it  through 
rubber  tubing,  although  brass  or  copper  is  preferable  if  the  tubing 
is  likely  to  come  in  contact  with  grease  or  petrol.  In  some  cases 
the  exterior  lamps  are  wired  from  the  same  accumulator  as  the 
interior  ones,  while  independent  circuits  are  a  safeguard  should  a 
lamp  fail  unexpectedly. 


EXTERIOR  ILLUMINATION 


H7 


Exterior  Illumination 

Legal  Requirements. — Outside  lamps  are  a  legal  necessity.  One 
must  have  at  least  one  lamp  on  the  extreme  right  of  the  car ;  if  it  is 
used  to  show  a  rear  light  as  well,  the  back  number  must  be 
illuminated  between  one  hour  after  sunset  and  one  hour  before 
sunrise,  and  the  headlights  must  not  be  searchlights  capable  of  being 
independently  swivelled  without  relation  to  the  direction  in  which 
the  car  is  proceeding.  With  taxicabs,  the  dial  of  the  taximeter  must 
be  illuminated  within  the  limits  of  the  lighting- up  time.  Motor 
omnibuses  must  have  an  inside  light  if  they  are  used  for  public 
service  in  London.  For  appearance’  sake,  it  is  usual  to  carry  a  pair 
of  dashboard  lamps,  and  when  on  their  brackets  they  should 
approximately  define  the  greatest  width  of  the  car. 

The  position  of  the  headlamps  should  interfere  as  little  as 
possible  with  the  radiator  cooling  surface,  and  be  free  from  the  path 
of  the  starting  handle  when  it  is  revolved.  The  average  height  to 
place  headlights  from  the  ground  is  about  3  ft.,  while  greater 
heights,  giving  a  larger  forward  range  of  illumination,  can  be 
obtained  satisfactorily  by  placing  them  on  the  front  wings,  which 
have  been  provided  with  specially  strong  stays  for  the  purpose. 

One  or  two  headlights  are  necessary  when  much  country  driving 
is  done,  and  in  town  are  a  safeguard  in  moving  through  slower  and 
often  (in  the  absence  of  equity  in  vehicle  law)  unlighted  traffic. 
The  lamps  may  also  be  placed  on  brackets  forged  to  a  hinged  rod 
which  is  swung  open  when  starting  the  car,  but  this  complexity  is 
usually  unnecessary. 

Pillar  lamps,  fastened  to  the  front  standing  pillar;  may  be  used 
in  addition  to  or  in  lieu  of  the  dash  lamps,  and  look  well  on  a  town 
car,  giving  the  effect  somewhat  of  a  horsed  carriage.  The  tail  lamp 
will  be  placed  on  the  off  side  for  British  touring,  and  on  the  near 
side  for  American  and  Continental  road  travel,  owing  to  differences 
in  the  rule  of  the  road. 

Electric  Lamps. — Headlights  will  be  either  8  or  12  volts,  and 
provided  with  suitable  plugs  so  that  they  may  be  disconnected  from 
the  wiring  system  when  necessary.  Useful  neat  side  lamps  will  be 
rated  at  4  volts,  and  the  tail  lamp  of  similar  capacity.  The  clear 
burning,  non-blow-out  electric  tail  lamp  is  obviously  an  advantage 


148 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


over  an  oil  lamp,  and  besides  which  a  tell-tale  device  can  easily  be 
arranged  in  conjunction  with  a  simple  fitting  on  the  dashboard. 
Sometimes  the  number  plate  is  designed  as  a  neat  illuminated  sign, 
especially  with  electric  cars.  The  square-shaped  type  of  dash  or 
pillar  lamp  makes  an  elegant  finish  to  a  town  car.  Modern  patterns 
are  designed  with  the  contact  fitting  under  the  bracket,  so  that  it  is 
practically  unnoticeable. 

Any  type  of  lamp  may  be  provided  with  waterproof  detachable 
covers  for  use  in  the  daytime  when  the  owner  considers  lamp¬ 
polishing  labour  before  the  smart  appearance  of  his  car. 

Another  exterior  lamp  often  used  is  the  pillar  lamp  clipped  to 
the  steering  column  for  reading  the  speedometer,  mileage  recorder, 
oil  and  petrol  gauges  and  so  on  at  night.  This  should  have  a 
universal  movement,  and  may  be  in  circuit  with  the  tail  lamp,  so 
that  it  will  immediately  tell  the  driver  if  his  back  light  has  failed. 
This  pillar  lamp  may  also  be  detachable  for  road  inspection  pur¬ 
poses.  A  fixed  lamp  screwed  to  the  dashboard  may  be  had  at 
one-eighth  the  price. 

As  regards  the  generative  source,  there  is  now  a  tendency  to 
use  a  small  dynamo,  driven  from  the  engine,  which  supplies  the 
lighting  energy  for  both  interior  and  exterior  lamps. 

Acetylene  Lamps. — This  type  of  illumination  is  generally  con¬ 
fined  to  the  headlamps,  although  side  lamps  may  be  obtained. 
The  gas  tail  lamp  would  require  too  much  piping  to  be  a  practical 
proposition,  while  the  self-contained  lamp  would  be  too  bulky. 
The  various  manufacturers  have  each  their  own  type  of  generator, 
whether  incased  in  the  body  of  the  lamp,  or  as  a  separate  accessory 
mounted  generally  on  the  running  board.  The  principle  of  the 
generation  of  the  gas  consists  in  allowing  water  to  drip  slowly  on 
to  calcium  carbide.  The  mechanism  should  allow  of  the  gas  being 
immediately  cut  off  when  required,  and  the  damp  carbide  should 
have  every  opportunity  of  draining  when  not  in  use.  Gas  lamps 
have  to  be  kept  scrupulously  clean,  and  the  gas  passages,  such  as 
the  pipes,  taps,  valves,  and  burners,  should  be  kept  free  so  as  not 
to  choke.  Systematic  attention  is  necessary  if  a  good  light  is  to  be 
depended  on  at  any  moment.  Spare  burners  should  be  carried,  and 
the  generator  constantly  overhauled  to  see  that  the  gas  filtering 
medium  is  kept  clean.  The  orifices  in  a  duplex  acetylene  burner 


EXTERIOR  ILLUMINATION 


149 


are  extremely  small,  so  that  even  a  small  speck  of  clirt  will  make 
a  great  difference  to  the  shape  and  size  of  the  flame,  not  only  affect¬ 
ing  the  illuminating  power,  but  often  blackening  the  reflectors 
and  other  interior  surfaces  of  the  lamp. 

If  the  separate  generator  is  favoured,  a  type  should  be  selected 
which  is  easy  to  clean  and  to  examine  as  to  the  amount  of  carbide 
remaining.  An  ordinary  generator  will  light  a  pair  of  powerful 
headlights  for  six  hours — no  advantage  in  this  respect  of  electric 
light.  The  generator  should  be  as  low  as  possible,  while  the 
piping  (of  not  less  than  ^  in.  bore)  continually  rises  to  the  lamp 
with  an  absence  of  quick  curves.  The  tubing  being  on  the  rise, 
allows  the  water  to  run  away  from  the  lamp  into  a  special  con¬ 
denser.  The  metal  tubing  should  be  connected  to  the  generator 
and  lamp  taps  with  rubber  tubing,  so  that,  as  with  the  water 
cooling  system,  vibration  is  allowed  for. 

Self-contained  lamps  burn  equally  as  long  as  the  separate 
generator  type,  and  a  duplex  generator  is  a  convenience  while  one 
may  be  kept  as  a  spare.  A  large  self-contained  lamp  will  weigh 
about  12  lbs.,  a  smaller  size  9  lbs.,  and  a  separate  type  about  5  lbs. 
The  generator  should  be  protected  by  a  felt-lined  case  so  that  the 
water  is  less  likely  to  freeze  in  cold  weather.  Self-lighting  devices 
have  been  placed  on  the  market,  whereby  the  movement  of  a  switch 
on  the  dashboard  ignites  the  gas  in  the  lamp.  Care  has  to  be  taken 
that  explosions  do  not  occur  owing  to  the  pressure  of  gas  being  too 
great.  Acetylene  may  be  purchased  in  cylinders  ready  to  use,  in 
which  case  a  generator  is  rendered  unnecessary. 

Petroleum  Lamps. — The  oil  lamp  is  an  old  favourite  for  all 
types  of  vehicles.  Side  and  tail  lamps  usually  burn  petroleum, 
and  a  good  design  with  well- protected  ventilation  will  burn  well 
even  when  the  car  is  proceeding  at  a  good  pace  in  a  head  wind. 
The  body  of  the  lamp,  as  with  all  types,  should  naturally  shed 
the  water,  and  no  sharp  corners  or  edges  should  be  presented. 
The  wick  should  be  controlled  by  an  inconspicuous  device,  and 
the  whole  should  be  strong  and  of  generous  proportions  in  the 
chimney,  while  the  locking  of  the  door  and  reservoir  should  be 
well  designed  so  that  they  do  not  come  undone  under  vibration. 
Lamps  should  always  be  removed  when  washing  the  car,  and 
should  be  fixed  clear  of  wind  screens,  otherwise  they  are  liable  to 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


Fig.  18. — Limousine  Landaulette,  showing  the  more  important  parts  of  a  Motor  Body. 


EXTERIOR  ILLUMINATION 


151 


A  Wind  screen  standard  or  stanchion. 

B  Canopy. 

C  Hoopstick. 

D  Canopy  rail. 

E  Front  canopy  rail  (with  cornice  in 
centre). 

F  Centre  light  pillar. 

G  Front  standing  pillar. 

H  Door  pillar  (shut  or  lock  side). 

I  Door  pillar  (hinge  side). 

J  Hind  standing  pillar. 

K  Door  top. 

L  Cant  rail. 

M  Cant  rail  and  door  top  combined,  or 
cant  rail. 

N  Side  light  pillar  top,  or  pillar  top  (off 
side). 

0  Cant  rail  hinge,  with  flap  taking 
hoopstick  (off  side). 

P  Outside  joint  (off  side). 

Q  Head  spring  (off  side). 

R  Pillar  hinge  (off  side). 

S  Head  leather. 

T  Back  light. 

U  Head  slat. 

V  Side  light. 

W  Glass  frame  (off  side),  top  stile. 

X  Elbow. 

Y  Corner  pillar. 

Z  Seat  or  short  bottom  side. 
a  Panel  batten. 
b  Back  squab. 

c  Rolling  bar  of  head  mechanism. 
cl  Side  squab. 

blow  out,  also  the  tail-lamp  chimney  should  not  be  in  direct  line 
with  the  exhaust  outlet.  Oil  lamps  are  the  cheapest  to  maintain, 
but  require  to  be  kept  clean,  although  they  do  not  demand  the 
close  attention  demanded  by  the  gas  lamp.  A  fair-sized  side  lamp 
will  burn  for  sixteen  hours  and  weigh  four  pounds. 

Many  types  of  petroleum  lamps,  both  side  and  tail,  are  adaptable 
to  electric  illumination.  A  well-known  pattern  has  a  back  light 
which  unscrews,  thereby  allowing  the  electric  fitting  to  take  its 
place,  the  oil  burner  remaining  in  position.  Electric-acetylene 
combinations  are  also  procurable.  With  head  lights,  the  motoiist 
sometimes  experiences  delay  owing  to  the  centres  of  his  foiked 
lamp  brackets  not  corresponding  with  those  of  his  new  lamps. 
This  difficulty  may  be  overcome  by  the  use  of  adjustable  brackets. 


e  Panel  batten. 

/  Door  panel. 
g  Glass  frame  rest. 
h  Driving  seat  panel. 
i  Moulding. 
j  Heel  board. 
k  Wind  or  front  door. 

1  Scuttle  dash. 
m  Door  plate. 
n  Hind  wing. 

o  Wing  stay. 

p  Step  edging  of  long  side  step,  or  run¬ 
ning  board. 

2  Long  side  step. 
r  Step  stay. 

s  Rocker  or  boot  side. 
t  Toe  of  front  standing  pillar. 
u  Flange  of  front  wing. 
v  Side  guard  of  front  wing. 
w  Wasting. 
x  Step  stay  flap. 
y  Step  guard, 
a  Runner  or  bottom  side. 

1  Fence  rail. 

2  Outside  elbow  of  driving  seat. 

3  Door  bottom  side. 

4  Web  of  chassis  side  member. 

5  Door  bottom. 

6  Fence. 

7  Joint  end. 

8  Knuckle  joint. 

9  Bottom  prop. 

10  Top  prop. 


CHAPTER  XV 


BODY  ACCESSORIES 

Thebe  is  a  wide  range  of  accessories,  and  for  the  purpose  of  review¬ 
ing  the  uses  of  the  more  important,  it  will  be  convenient  to  divide 
them  into  two  classes — body  accessories,  and  chassis  or  motor 
accessories.  The  division  will,  of  course,  only  be  an  arbitrary  one. 

Tool  Boxes. — The  inside  lockers  of  the  body  are  seldom  of 
sufficient  capacity,  especially  now  that  seats  are  so  low,  therefore 
some  external  box  becomes  necessary  on  a  car  which  does  any 
amount  of  extended  touring.  The  near  side  step  is  a  favourite 
place  for  the  box,  as  the  off  side  is  usually  occupied  by  spare  tyres, 
or  detachable  rims  or  wheels.  Polished  wood  is  a  favourite  finish, 
but  if  the  box  is  painted  to  match  the  body,  and  the  surface  is 
prepared  with  the  same  care,  so  far  as  time  taken  and  the  number 
of  coats  of  paint  applied,  then  the  box  will  wear  much  more  satis¬ 
factorily  than  if  french-polished.  The  sizes  of  boxes  run,  on  an 
average,  from  11  ins.  by  6  ins.  by  8  ins.  up  to  27  ins.  by  11  ins.  by  11 
ins.,  and  generally  with  some  variety  of  interior  partitioning,  such 
as  a  tray  or  one  or  two  vertical  divisions.  The  box  is  fastened  to 
the  step  by  two  wood-countersunk  bolts.  Some  prefer  a  piece  of 
rubber  or  aluminium  matting  fitted  to  the  top  of  the  box,  so  that  it 
may  be  used  as  a  step,  while  a  piece  of  plain  brown  linoleum  looks 
neat  and  wears  well.  Tool-boxes,  in  many  cases,  suffer  from  one 
great  defect,  dampness.  This  is  difficult  to  overcome,  as  the  tool¬ 
box  being  bolted  to  the  step,  the  washer  seldom  troubles  to  detach 
it  when  cleaning  the  car,  and  for  that  matter,  such  a  course  would 
not  be  desirable,  as  an  insecurely  fastened  box  might  easily  mean 
the  box  and  its  contents  left  on  the  road.  The  box,  in  order  to  shed 
the  water,  should  have  a  lid  sloping  well  to  the  front,  with  a  metal 
drip  plate  running  all  round  just  above  the  line  of  opening.  A 


BODY  ACCESSORIES 


*53 


good  plan  is  to  have  a  lid  which  overlaps  the  surface  of  the  lower 
part.  Good  constructional  design  will  sometimes  be  noted  in 
accumulator  boxes  which  have  a  falling  front,  and  the  lid  and  sides 
of  the  boxes  join  up  by  means  of  tongue  and  groove  arrangements. 

A  steel  box  does  away  with  joints  which  may  leak,  while  the 
blocked  and  rounded  edges  give  little  lodgment  to  moisture.  In  a 
box  of  this  description  there  need  only  be  one  seam,  which  will  be 
at  the  back,  or  the  four  sides  may  be  turned  over  and  rivetted  to  the 
base.  A  very  useful  tool  box  is  one  which  displays  its  contents 
readily,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  superimposed  trays  are  mounted 
on  lazy  tongs,  so  that  a  pull  to  the  upper  tray  immediately  brings 
forward,  in  a  series  of  steps,  the  lower  trays.  The  top  of  a  tool  box 
may  be  used  as  an  emergency  seat,  in  which  case  the  top  will  be 
padded  with  a  waterproof  material,  and  a  folding  back-rest  also  can 
easily  be  arranged. 

Tool  boxes  which  carry  the  necessary  spanners,  screwdrivers, 
and  other  tools,  as  well  as  a  collection  of  small  spares  in  a  disorderly 
heap  will  set  up  a  considerable  amount  of  noise  as  well  as  injuring 
some  of  the  contents.  The  tools  and  so  on  should  be  carried  in  the 
same  neat  array  as  in  a  high-class  dressing  case,  and  a  place  should 
be  provided  for  every  important  tool  by  means  of  shaped  counter  - 
sunks  in  trays,  or  suitable  leather  or  other  staples.  Little  articles 
such  as  plugs,  washers,  nuts  and  bolts  will  be  carried  in  the  smaller 
partitions,  trays,  or  drawers.  Some  tool  chests  have  been  fitted  up 
on  the  inside  of  front  doors,  where  they  have  the  advantage  of 
increased  accessibility.  A  tool  box  may  run  the  whole  length  of  the 
step  on  top,  when  it  is  made  narrower  than  the  step,  and  forms 
a  second  step  to  the  body,  doing  away  with  the  necessity  for  a 
shield.  Boxes  of  this  description  are  sometimes  made  of  cast 
aluminium.  When  the  box  is  under  the  step,  part  of  the  step 
forms  the  lid  or  lids ;  drawers  in  this  position  are  liable  to  get  out  of 
order  owing  to  their  exposure.  A  practice  often  adopted  in  mount¬ 
ing  the  ordinary  tool-box  is  to  place  it  half  through  the  step  so  that 
it  is  not  so  prominent.  An  important  item  is  the  pattern  of  lock 
used.  This  should  be  of  good  quality,  while  the  fastening  of  the 
lid,  which  will  be  an  independent  fitting,  should  be  of  the  pull-over 
variety,  so  that  the  lips  of  the  lid  are  tightly  pressed  home  on  the 
flanges  of  the  sides.  One  lock  and  a  pair  of  pull-overs  are  usually 


i54 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


essential  for  a  watertight  job,  even  in  a  box  15  ins.  long,  and  the 
methodical  owner  will  probably  have  a  master  key  which  passes  the 
locks  on  the  tool  and  other  boxes,  interior  lockers,  trunks,  and 
probably  a  bonnet  lock  as  well. 

Luggage  Grids. — The  grid,  grille,  carrier,  or  rack  for  carrying 
luggage  at  the  rear  may  be  regarded  as  a  standard  fitting  on  bodies 
not  provided  with  a  roof  extension.  Neatness  is  obtained  when  it  is 
made  of  metal  with,  say,  £  in.  by  \  in.  sides,  having  round  corners, 
and  three  or  four  neat  cross-bars  of  J  in.  round  iron.  The  grid, 
when  not  in  use,  should  fold  in  half  inwards,  and  have  a  stop  hinge 
in  the  centre,  while  the  strain  is  lessened  at  the  joint  by,  having  a 
pair  of  light  knuckle  joints  fastened  at  the  top  to  the  body  frame¬ 
work.  Grids  which  collapse  like  a  lattice  gate  are  liable  to  get  out 
of  order,  owing  to  the  large  number  of  parts  which  have  to  work  in 
unison,  while  the  pattern  which  slides  right  in  may  not  always  stay 
where  it  is  wanted.  Wooden  racks  give  a  sporting  appearance  to 
an  open  car,  and,  when  upward  inclined  and  curved,  make  a  useful 
game  carrier.  The  back  panel  may  be  protected  with  a  few  guard 
rails  to  prevent  chafing,  but  this  will  be  unnecessary  if  trunks  are 
carried  properly  secured  to  staples  on  the  grid. 

Driving  Mirrors. — In  order  that  the  driver  may  see  behind  him 
without  turning  and  taking  his  attention  off  the  traffic  in  front,  a 
driving  mirror  is  fitted  to  the  canopy  or  wind  screen  stanchion  on 
the  steering  side.  To  allow  for  different  heights  of  drivers  and 
varying  positions  on  different  cars,  this  fitting  should  have  a 
universal  movement  and  be  easily  adjusted  so  that  it  is  under 
control  by  the  loosening  of  one  fly-nut’  only.  The  mirror  also  has 
its  uses  when  reversing  a  car.  The  glass  may  be  rectangular,  when 
it  runs  about  8  ins.  by  5 1  ins.,  but  a  lighter  and  cheaper  circular 
pattern  may  be  obtained,  weighing  about  half  as  much,  which  is 
merely  a  6  ins.  or  7  ins.  circular  mirror. 

Trunks. — These  should  be  specially  made  for  motor  work,  as  the 
ordinary  railway  or  steamer  pattern  is  not  weather-proof  enough. 
Trunks  look  neatest  if  they  are  made  to  fit  the  car,  especially  when 
they  are  carried  at  the  rear  on  the  rack,  or  on  the  roof.  As  with  a 
tool-box  the  locks  and  fastenings  should  pull  the  lid  well  down,  and 
a  secure  and  rigid  attachment  is  essential,  so  that  the  trunk  does 
not  chafe  itself  or  the  body.  The  rack  trunks  are  made  to  the 


BODY  ACCESSORIES 


1 55 


exact  shape  of  the  hind  panel,  and  allowance  is  also  made  for  the 
overhang  of  the  seat  and  the  curvature  of  the  panels. 

Trunks  are  usually  made  of  three-ply  wood,  screwed  together, 
and  covered  with  a  thin  leather-like  material,  which  can  be  had  in 
almost  any  shade  to  match  the  car.  The  top  trunk,  or  any  one 
which  has  the  whole  upper  surface  exposed,  should  be  dome¬ 
shaped,  so  as  to  naturally  throw  off  all  wet.  Trunks  which  one 
wishes  to  take  into  an  hotel  should  be  carried  in  well -fitting  cases, 
either  loose  covers,  or  in  a  chest  or  cupboard,  the  latter  arrange¬ 
ment  increasing  the  overall  dimensions  but  little. 

Roof  trunks  are  made  to  fit  the  compass  of  the  roof  exactly, 
and,  when  stretching  right  across  from  one  side  of  the  body  to  the 
other,  make  a  suitable  dress-case  for  ladies’  attire,  as  such  a  trunk 
will  be  at  least  48  ins.  wide,  sufficient  for  a  skirt.  The  boxes  carried 
on  the  grid  are  more  suitable  for  gentlemen’s  clothing.  When 
ordering  trunks  it  is  a  little  point  of  economy  to  remember  that  one 
large  trunk  is  cheaper  than  two  small  ones  filling  the  same  space, 
but,  of  course,  when  four  persons  are  touring  together  several 
cases  are  a  great  convenience.  Hat  boxes  are  usually  designed  to 
go  on  the  step,  and  24  ins.  by  12  ins.  by  24  ins.  is  the  standard  size 
specified  by  leading  makers. 

Trunks  for  other  purposes  may  be  carried  on  the  step,  such  as 
golf  and  gun  cases — the  former  being  the  longer,  while  the  latter 
are  ingeniously  fitted  up  to  hold  each  gun  separately,  with  a  com¬ 
partment  for  ammunition.  Those  who  dislike  the  appearance  of  a 
spare  tyre  or  wheel  carried  on  the  step,  can,  with  a  canopied  car, 
carry  it  in  a  square  or  circular  box  on  this  part  of  the  roof,  the 
square  variety  giving  more  corners  for  stowing  small  articles. 
Either  variety  is  useful  in  the  centre,  when  divided  up,  for  carrying 
inner  tubes,  or  it  may  be  utilized  as  a  whole  for  carrying  ladies’  and 
gentlemen’s  hats.  Tyres  when  carried  on  the  step  can  be  kept 
clean,  and  in  good  condition,  by  means  of  close-fitting  waterproof 
wrappers.  When  a  tyre  or  rim  only  is  carried,  then  the  centre 
space  may  be  used  to  insert  a  special  circular  case,  which  answers 
a  similar  purpose  to  the  centre  of  the  roof  canopy  tyre  box. 

Trunks  and  hampers  are  also  made  to  fix  under  the  seats  inside, 
usually  the  hind  one.  Dressing-cases,  luncheon  and  tea  baskets, 
and  toilet  requisites  of  all  descriptions,  embracing  every  detail  of 


156 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


luxury,  may  be  had  by  those  who  wish  to  do  extended  touring,  and 
be  as  independent  of  hotels  as  possible. 

Communicators. — Some  means  of  communication  between  the 
driver  and  occupants  of  the  interior  of  a  closed  body  without  having 
to  move  from  one’s  seat,  is  a  great  convenience.  The  simplest 
mechanism  is  the  check  string,  a  piece  of  silk  cord  having  one  end 
fastened  to  the  chauffeur’s  coat  and  the  other  end  passing  through 
the  front  framing  of  the  body.  This  is  the  usual  style  adopted  in 
horse-drawn  carriages. 

The  communicator,  whereby  various  simple  directions  may  be 
conveyed,  may  consist  of  a  mechanical  or  electrical  device.  The 
former  has  two  dials,  one  fixed  inside  on  the  front  of  the  body  or 
conveniently  at  the  side,  while  the  other  dial  is  attached  to  the 
dashboard.  The  inside  dial  is  provided  with  a  handle,  which  by 
means  of  a  flexible  shaft  or  Bowden  wire  transmits  a  similar 
position  to  a  finger  on  the  dashboard  dial.  The  electrical  com¬ 
municator  has  two  dials,  either  of  a  circular  or  rectangular  shape, 
fitted  inside  and  out  as  before.  The  inside  fitting  has  a  number  of 
simple  directions,  by  the  side  of  each  being  a  push-button.  When  a 
button  is  pressed,  a  corresponding  direction  is  lit  up  by  a  tiny  lamp 
under  the  glass  top  of  the  dashboard  fitting,  and  at  the  same  time  a 
bell  rings.  As  there  are  often  seven  or  eight  wires  in  close  proximity, 
each  of  which  has  to  work  independently,  the  chances  are  that  the 
device  will  get  out  of  order  before  long,  unless  unusual  care  is  taken 
in  fitting  it  up,  and  each  wire  is  well  insulated  from  the  next,  also 
all  the  various  delicate  parts  are  well  made  and  designed,  which 
suggests  that  only  the  highest  class  of  electrical  communicators 
should  be  purchased. 

Speaking  Tubes. — The  speaking  tube  allows  of  a  more  detailed 
direction.  The  fitting  consists  of  a  length  of  rubber  tubing,  covered 
with  various  materials  to  match  the  trimming,  with  a  trumpet  at 
one  end,  and  a  mouthpiece,  whistle,  and  bulb  at  the  other.  The 
tube  is  fastened  to  the  body  by  special  screwed  (generally  nickelled) 
rings,  which  pursue  a  path  according  to  the  type  of* body.  In  a 
limousine  the  mouthpiece  will  be  placed  by  the  side  of  the  door, 
near  the  hind  seat  on  the  off  side,  where  it  may  be  easily  taken  off 
the  holder,  and  conveyed  to  the  mouth.  The  tubing  will  run  up 
the  standing  pillar,  along  the  cant  rail,  and  out  of  the  body  by  the 


BODY  ACCESSORIES 


x57 


offside  corner  of  the  front  top  rail.  The  bell  mouth  of  the  trumpet 
should  be  on  a  level  with  the  ear  of  the  chauffeur.  In  a  landaulette 
with  folding  front,  the  tubing  will  be  brought  up  from  under  the 
driving  seat.  The  mouthpiece  should  be  protected  so  that  dust, 
dirt,  and  air  is  not  driven  into  the  body  from  the  trumpet.  The 
latest  patterns  have  a  combined  mouthpiece  and  bulb,  while  the 
trumpet  is  capable  of  adjustment  for  different  chauffeurs. 

Glass  Flaps. — Instead  of  a  speaking  tube,  which  is  considered 
by  some  unhygienic,  the  front  light  may  be  pierced,  and  a  hinged 
or  sliding  flap  of  glass  inserted.  Another  plan  is  to  have  the  front 
light  divided  into  three  vertical  portions,  the  centre  or  other  portion 
of  which  is  hinged,  or  made  to  slide. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


HOW  TO  CHOOSE  A  CHASSIS 

There  are,  at  least,  one  hundred  prominent  makes  of  cars  on  the 
British  market,  the  majority  of  which  are  made  in  several  models. 

The  Question  of  Price. — The  first  consideration  is  price.  If  a  man 
has  only  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  to  spend  it  will  rule  out  all 
the  higher-powered  models,  and  in  some  instances,  such  as  the  Rolls 
Royce,  Daimler,  Delaunay-Belleville,  Lan Chester,  Mercedes,  and  so 
on,  it  will  put  these  makes  out  of  consideration  altogether,  as  a  car 
even  at  one  hundred  pounds  above  the  figure  stated  is  not  made  by 
these  firms. 

Personal  Recommendation. — A  definite  way  of  going  to  work  will 
be  something  in  this  way.  If  the  would-be  motorist  has  a  friend 
who  has  driven  with  success  a  make  of  car  which  comes  within  his 
financial  scope,  then  he  cannot  do  better  than  get  the  latest  model 
of  that  type. 

Visiting  the  Local  Agent. — If  the  motorist  cannot  make  up  his 
mind  in  this  way,  probably  because  several  friends  have  cars  of  widely 
differing  specifications,  prices,  and  behaviour,  then  he  should  visit 
the  nearest  local  agent  or  agents,  and  obtain  price  lists  and 
particulars.  This  will  put  him  in  the  possession  of,  say,  half-a-dozen 
specifications  from  which  he  can  choose  a  model  within  £25  either 
side  of  the  capital  he  is  prepared  to  expend.  The  relationship 
between  horsepower  and  price  need  not  trouble  him,  or  for  that 
matter,  number  of  cylinders,  type  of  ignition,  lubrication,  and  so 
on,  because  the  last  five  years  of  keen  competition  has  had  the 
effect  of  levelling  up  the  workmanship  and  general  value  of  most 
cars.  If  he  should,  in  some  instances,  get  a  little  less  horsepower 
for  his  money  in  a  certain  chassis,  the  chances  are  he  will  get  a 
better  piece  of  machinery  than  with  the  higher-powered  chassis. 


HOW  TO  CHOOSE  A  CHASSIS 


!59 


Quality  means  less  delay  on  the  road,  and,  therefore,  in  the  end,  as 
much  mileage  as  with  a  speedier  car  having  less  perfect  mechanism. 

The  Body  Space. — When  deciding  the  amount  of  money  he  will 
spend  with  the  motor  manufacturer,  he  should  at  the  same  time 
make  up  his  mind  as  to  the  kind  of  body  which  will  be  mounted,  so 
that  the  two  may  be  properly  related.  If  the  make  of  chassis  under 
consideration  is  not  long  enough  to  take  the  large  landaulette  body 
which  is  to  be  adopted,  it  may  be  cheerfully  rejected  for  one  which 
has  a  more  generous  wheelbase. 

The  Question  of  Delivery. — All  methodical  selection  may  be 
abruptly  defeated  by  the  fact  that  delivery  cannot  be  made  until 
some  months  hence.  If  the  motorist  is  in  a  hurry,  he  may  be 
happy  in  thinking  that  an  equally  good  car  can  be  obtained  without 
waiting  by  inquiring  in  other  directions. 

The  Man  of  an  Engineering  turn  of  Mind . — The  more  a  man 
knows  about  motor  cars,  the  less  easy  it  is  for  him  to  satisfy  himself 
when  buying  a  new  car.  He  will  probably  worry  about  accessibility, 
number  of  speeds,  design  of  the  transmission  generally,  and  a 
hundred  and  one  other  considerations.  Probably  he  has  his  own 
pet  car  in  view,  then  the  course  is  clear,  and  he  follows  his  bias. 
Those  who  hold  shares  in  motor  companies,  or  who  know  personally 
any  of  the  staff  of  a  concern,  have  their  path  made  easy.  Generally 
speaking,  the  best  way  is  to  choose  the  car  which  naturally  comes 
within  one’s  local  observation,  do  not  tie  the  expenditure  down  too 
exactly,  and  see  that  it  is  long  enough  for  the  body  required. 

The  Car  with  a  Reputation. — It  is  always  a  safe  plan  to  buy  a 
car  with  a  manufacturer’s  name  attached  to  it.  Makes  of  cars 
which  are  well  known  fetch  a  good  price  when  second-hand,  and  in 
some  instances  it  is  possible  to  judge  the  merits  of  a  car  by  the 
difficulty  in  obtaining  a  very  cheap  second-hand  one. 

Steam  and  Electric  Cars. — The  question  as  to  whether  the  pro¬ 
pelling  power  shall  be  steam  or  electricity  may  assail  the  motorist- 
Well,  if  he  cares  for  steam  he  has  only  three  or  four  makes  to  worry 
him,  and  there  will  be  no  electric  ignition  to  perplex  him,  and  no 
gear  changing,  but  at  the  same  time  he  must  not  mind  being  out  of 
the  fashion.  The  electric  car,  of  course,  is  only  intended  for  short 
journeys  in  town. 

Apart  from  price  and  right  length,  the  would-be  purchaser  is 


i6o 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


always  safe  in  buying  a  make  of  car  which  he  has  heard  of  for  some 
years. 

Spare  Parts. — A  well-established  firm  is  more  likely  to  keep  a 
satisfactory  stock  of  spare  parts,  so  that  a  renewal  does  not  entail  a 
big  bill  owing  to  parts  having  to  be  specially  made.  Motor  shows 
should  be  visited  merely  to  add  to  one’s  general  knowledge  of  motor 
engineering  and  allied  industries;  they  are  by  their  bewildering 
array  not  suited  for  the  calm  selection  of  the  right  car,  unless  a 
decision  has  been  arrived  at  previously. 

Trial  Runs. — Having  come  to  a  definite  conclusion  between,  say, 
two  or  three  cars,  a  trial  run  of  about  one  hundred  miles  should  be 
asked  for,  with  the  car  loaded  to  its  full  capacity.  This  will  give  a 
fair  idea  of  its  power  of  climbing  hills,  and  one  can  note  how  the 
gears  change,  how  much  necessity  there  is  for  gear  changing,  how 
the  brakes  act  (he  will  ask  the  car  to  be  stopped  without  previously 
warning  the  driver),  and  the  wise  purchaser  will  arrange  for  fuel 
consumption  to  be  noted  as  against  the  mileage.  If  the  particular 
make  of  car  is  not  purchased,  the  inquirer  should  be  willing  to  pay 
a  pre-arranged  sum  for  the  out-of-pocket  expenses  of  the  trial  run. 
If  the  trial  run  is  satisfactory,  there  need  be  no  further  anxiety. 
The  next  thing  is  to  get  the  specification,  which  statement  should 
include  all  the  accessories  and  tools  given  with  the  chassis.  The 
make  of  tyres  should  be  described,  the  kind  of  tread,  and  size,  while 
the  date  and  place  of  delivery  should  be  made  plain. 

Second-hand  Cars. — Those  who  have  only  a  small  amount  to 
spend  will  naturally  be  attracted  by  the  low  price  at  which  many 
second-hand  cars  are  offered.  To  obtain  a  bargain,  it  is  necessary 
to  understand  how  a  car  wears  in  use,  and  also  to  estimate  readily 
if  the  amount  of  wear  shown  is  within  reasonable  limits  to  allow 
further  running  on  an  economical  basis,  or  if  certain  parts  are 
repaired  or  renewed,  whether  the  cost  of  these  repairs,  plus  the 
price  paid  for  the  car,  constitutes  value  for  money,  bearing  in  mind 
the  cost  of  a  new  car.  In  many  instances,  if  the  would-be  purchaser 
has  little  engineering  knowledge,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  engage  the 
services  of  an  expert,  and  the  few  guineas  paid  to  him  will,  in  most 
cases,  be  well  expended. 

No  second-hand  car  should  be  bought  unless  one  is  given  ample 
leisure  to  inspect  it  beforehand.  Generally  speaking,  the  car  should 


HOW  TO  CHOOSE  A  CHASSIS  161 

be  in  running  order,  that  is  to  say,  it  should  not  require  any  great 
amount  of  adjustment  in  order  to  give  a  trial  run. 

The  inspection  should  not  be  commenced  until  the  car  has  run 
a  few  miles,  say  a  short  trip  of  five  miles  out  and  home.  During 
this  journey  the  effectiveness  of  the  brakes  can  be  tested,  the 
readiness  with  which  the  front  wheels  answer  to  the  steering  wheel, 
and  likewise  the  regularity  of  the  firing.  Noise  and  rattle  of  any 
kind  will  also  be  made  apparent.  When  the  car  has  been  run  back 
to  the  garage,  the  engine  should  be  left  running  for  a  time,  when 
it  will  be  convenient  to  see  if  there  are  any  leaks  in  the  water 
circulation  either  in  the  radiator,  the  piping,  hose  connections,  or 
cylinder  jackets.  If  any  leaks  are  present  in  the  lubrication  system 
these  should  be  noted  by  any  pools  made  on  the  floor  or  subsequent 
examination  of  any  under-shield  carried.  Any  defect  in  the  petrol 
piping  will  of  course  materially  affect  the  running  of  the  engine, 
but  it  is  as  well  to  examine  all  the  joints,  and  where  any  attach¬ 
ment  is  made  to  the  chassis  to  see  that  there  is  no  chafing  and 
likelihood  of  subsequent  leakage.  After  the  engine  has  been  stopped, 
the  car  should  be  partly  dismantled  so  that  the  wear  of  the  engine 
parts  and  transmission  may  be  examined,  and  it  may  be  as  well 
to  mention  that  the  motorist  should  be  prepared  to  pay  for  this 
dismantling  and  re-erection,  if  not  done  by  his  expert,  and  the  car 
is  not  bought. 

Wear  has  to  be  looked  for  in  the  main  bearings  in  the  crank 
case,  and  the  pinions  in  the  gear  box  and  differential  case. 
These  should  be  emptied  of  their  lubricant,  so  that  the  teeth  may 
be  closely  examined,  while  the  oil  or  grease  should  be  examined 
for  metal  shavings  and  dust.  Other  constantly  moving  parts  are 
valves,  tappets,  and  cam  shafts,  and  if  the  steering  has  seemed 
defective  during  the  run  the  amount  of  play  should  be  ascertained, 
and  whether  this  may  be  adjusted,  or  require  a  new  worm  and 
sector  at  the  base  of  the  column.  New  bushings  may  be  required 
in  some  places,  and  the  services  of  the  expert  are  particularly 
desirable  in  ascertaining  the  accessibility  of  the  various  parts,  not 
only  their  easy  access,  but  the  amount  of  dismantling  required 
before  they  can  be  entirely  removed.  A  good  set  of  tyres  may  be 
4vell  worth  half  the  price  asked  for  the  complete  car.  These  should 
be  carefully  examined  for  cuts,  and  the  nature  of  any  repairs  should 


1 62  MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 

be  looked  into.  It  will  be  as  well  to  have  the  tyres  removed  so  that 

the  inner  tubes  may  be  inspected. 

Wear  in  the  body  work  chiefly  shows  itself  in  the  tightness  of 
the  closed  doors  and  the  rigidity  of  the  glass  frames  when  up  on  the 
fence.  The  paint  and  trimmings  will  probably  be  shabby,  but  torn 
places  and  split  panels  and  open  joints  should  be  looked  for,  and 
their  cost  of  repair  considered.  In  buying  a  second-hand  car  one 
may  not  be  able  always  to  obtain  spare  parts  rapidly,  and  as  a 
precaution  it  may  be  as  well  to  get  into  communication  with  the 
manufacturers,  and  ascertain  how  matters  stand  in  this  direction. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


THE  PETROL  ENGINE 

The  engine,  as  used  in  the  majority  of  motor-cars,  has  the  same 
principle  of  working  as  the  ordinary  gas-engine  suggested  by  Beau 
de  Rochas  in  1862,  and  put  into  practical  form  by  Dr.  Otto  during  the 
next  fourteen  years,  but  a  different  fuel  is  used,  it  is  much  lighter  in 
weight  in  proportion  to  the  horsepower  developed,  and  the  speed 
of  the  moving  parts  is  greater,  three  differences  which  are  necessary, 
because  one  is  a  stationary  engine  while  the  other  is  attached  to  a 
road  vehicle,  in  which  case  reduction  of  weight  and  compactness  may 
be  regarded  as  essentials. 

The  fuel  supply  is  contained  in  a  tank,  from  whence  it  passes 
to  a  carburettor,  which  converts  the  motor  spirit,  when  mixed  with 
a  larger  proportion  of  air,  into  the  proper  state  for  being  ignited  in 
the  cylinder  head,  which  it  enters  by  way  of  the  inlet  valve.  The 
mixture  is  exploded  by  electrical  means,  and  forces  down  the  piston, 
so  communicating  motion  to  the  crank  shaft  and  then  through  a  clutch 
and  gear-box  to  the  bevel  drive  of  the  back  axle,  or  in  some  instances 
the  chain  drive  from  the  sprocket  shaft. 

The  Fuel. — Petrol,  motor  spirit,  or  gasoline  such  as  is  generally 
used  for  fuel  purposes,  is  distilled  from  crude  petroleum  or  mineral 
oil,  an  inflammable  liquid  found  in  certain  parts  of  the  world. 
Petroleum  is  a  complex  hydrocarbon,  and  other  useful  substances 
besides  petrol  are  distilled  from  it,  amongst  which  are  other  fuels 
which  may  be  used  for  motor  cars.  Petrol,  generally  speaking,  is 
the  most  volatile  of  the  products  produced,  and  therefore  comes 
away  first  from  the  parent  liquid ;  it  has  the  lowest  specific  gravity 
of  about  0-68  to  0*71  at  60°  F.,  and  gives  off  vapour  at  the  ordinary 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere.  After  being  re-distilled  and  refined 
so  that  no  residue  is  present  and  the  right  specific  gravity  obtained, 
it  is  ready  for  use. 


164 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


Certain  precautions  are  necessary  in  handling  it,  as  this  vapour 
is  highly  inflammable  when  mixed  with  air,  and  the  vapour 
being  heavier  than  air  there  is  more  danger  near  the  ground  than 
above.  The  liquid  itself  is  less  dangerous,  but  as  vapour  is  con- 


Fig.  19. — General  exterior  view  of  petrol  engine.  A,  cylinder  casting ;  B,  crank 
case  or  top  half  of  crank  case  ;  C,  lower  half  of  crank  case,  or  oil  reservoir. 


tinually  being  given  off,  naked  lights  should  be  rigidly  excluded  from 
the  immediate  neighbourhood. 

Pressure-fed  and  Gravity  Tanks. — The  situation  of  the  tank  will 
decide  whether  the  carburettor  is  to  be  fed  by  pressure  or  gravity. 
In  the  former  instance  the  contents  must  be  pumped  up.  This  is 
done  before  the  engine  is  started  by  a  hand-pump  fixed  to  the  dash¬ 
board,  which  is  in  connection  with  the  air-space  above  the  petrol  in 
the  tank.  This  pipe  has  also  connected  to  it  a  gauge  also  fastened 
to  the  dashboard,  so  that  the  presence  of  the  requisite  pressure  may 
be  proved  (usually  about  16  lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  or  2  lbs.  greater 


THE  PETROL  ENGINE 


165 


than  atmospheric  pressure),  while  a  further  branch  of  the  same 
pipe  leads  by  way  of  a  reducing  valve  to  the  exhaust  pipe.  This 
device  has  two  valves,  one  of  which  allows  the  exhaust  gas  (usually 
after  passing  through  a  strainer)  to  enter  the  body  of  the  valve, 
while  the  other  is  adjusted  to  allow  of  a  certain  amount  of  outside 
air  to  enter  and  so  reduce  the  pressure.  By  this  means  the  petrol 
supply  is  maintained  while  the  engine  is  running.  An  air  pump 
may  also  be  driven  by  gears  from  the  engine  in  place  of  this 
reducing  valve. 

The  supply  pipe,  which  is  quite  distinct  from  the  one  just  men¬ 
tioned,  starts  from  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  through  a  cock,  so  that 
the  supply  may  be  turned  off  when  required,  then  through  a  strainer 
either  direct  to  the  carburettor  or  through  an  auxiliary  tank  if  such 
is  carried.  It  is  most  essential  that  all  joints  and  piping  should  be 
airtight  and  well  brazed,  while  the  tank  filler  itself  must  be  screwed 
home  tightly.  The  reducing  valve,  hand-pump,  and  gauge  may 
also  be  in  communication  with  the  lubrication  system. 

The  pressure-fed  tank  is  generally  slung  at  the  back  of  the  frame 
between  the  side  members.  Here  it  is  out  of  the  way  so  far  as  well- 
designed  body  work  is  concerned,  but  it  is  liable  to  damage  from  the 
rear,  and  if  it  is  too  low  it  is  apt  to  prove  a  dust  raiser. 

The  gravity-fed  tank  requires  the  level  of  the  contents  never  to 
be  below  the  jet  of  the  carburettor,  and  when  deciding  on  its  position 
the  maximum  gradient  the  car  will  be  likely  to  encounter  must  be 
taken  into  consideration.  A  safe  rule  is  to  fit  the  tank  so  that  there 
is  a  3-in.  head  of  petrol  when  the  car  is  on  an  incline  of  1  in  5,  the 
measurement  being  taken  from  the  bottom  of  the  tank  to  the  top 
of  the  float  chamber  of  the  carburettor. 

The  tank  can  be  placed  under  the  seat,  either  side  of  the  dash¬ 
board,  or  behind  the  back  squab  of  the  driving  seat,  and  in  the  last 
two  instances  it  is  often  neatly  covered  with  mahogany  panelling. 
The  gravity  tank  must  have  a  small  vent  so  that  air  may  enter  to 
replace  the  petrol  as  it  is  consumed,  which  has  the  tendency  of 
allowing  the  lighter  portions  of  the  spirit  to  evaporate,  especially 
when  the  car  has  been  standing  for  some  time. 

Tanks  differ  greatly  in  shape  according  to  their  position,  and  are 
made  of  brass  or  copper,  while  cheaper  varieties  are  of  lead-coated 
steel.  They  must  be  absolutely  sound  at  all  the  joints,  which  should 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


166 

be  well  soldered  and  riveted,  and  all  cocks  and  connections  well 
designed  and  fitted. 

A  high-class  tank  should  have  a  generous  sized  filler,  and  be 
fitted  with  a  series  of  two  or  three  strainers  having  gauze  of  vary¬ 
ing  mesh,  so  that  all  impurities  are  entrapped,  including  water.  If 
the  filler  is  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  hand  it  will  facilitate 
cleaning.  A  refinement  in  tank  design  consists  of  the  provision  of 
an  extra  cock  which  has  to  be  turned  on  in  order  to  use  the  last  two 
gallons  of  the  tank,  whereby  the  driver  is  warned  that  his  fuel 
supply  is  running  out.  A  gauge  of  some  sort  is  a  great  convenience. 

Carburation. — The  carburettor  is  a  light  aluminium  or  gunmetal 
casting  whose  function  is  to  supply  the  engine  cylinders  with  the 
proper  mixture  of  petrol  vapour  and  air,  under  all  conditions  of 
running.  There  are  various  problems  to  contend  with,  the  majority 
of  which  can  only  be  combated  by  means  of  delicately  arranged 
adjustments.  The  temperature  and  degree  of  dryness  of  the 
atmosphere,  barometric  pressure,  road  inequalities,  the  crank-shaft 
speed,  the  quality  of  the  fuel,  and  the  residue  left  from  a  previous 
charge,  have  all  to  be  considered  in  the  design  of  an  efficient 
carburettor. 

A  very  large  quantity  of  air  is  used,  the  proportion  of  liquid 
petrol  to  air  being  approximately  as  9000  : :  1,  and  that  of  the  petrol 
vapour  and  air  as  6  : :  1.  The  chief  business  then  of  the  carburettor 
is  to  induce  the  air  to  become  impregnated  with  the  petrol  vapour, 
a  matter  which  is  more  difficult  at  high  speeds  than  low.  In  order 
to  impregnate  the  air  drawn  into  the  carburettor  by  the  suction  of 
the  piston,  it  is  allowed  to  travel  through  as  much  vapour  as  possible. 
In  the  old-fashioned  surface  carburettor  the  air  entered  the  tank 
itself  through  a  chimney,  and  was  assisted  in  the  saturation  process 
by  a  baffle  plate  which  tended  to  imprison  the  air  while  it  was 
travelling  over  the  surface  of  the  petrol.  Another  early  means 
adopted  consisted  in  allowing  air  to  bubble  through  the  petrol,  and 
in  another  the  motor  spirit  was  admitted  direct  to  the  seating  of  an 
air  valve,  or  the  inlet  valve  itself.  An  early  device,  which  with 
modifications  has  been  adhered  to  up  to  the  present  day  in  one 
notable  instance,  is  the  wick  type,  in  which  the  air  is  well  mixed 
with  the  petrol  vapour  by  passing  between  the  strands  of  cotton 
wicks. 


THE  PETROL  ENGINE 


167 


The  Float-feed  Carburettor  —The  modern  carburettor  is  of  the 
float-feed,  jet,  or  spray  type.  The  petrol  pipe  from  the  fuel  tank 
goes  directly  to  what  is  called  a  float  chamber,  which  is  designed  to 
keep  the  petrol  at  a  constant  level  in  it  and  the  one  communicating 
— the  mixing  chamber — where  the  jet  or  nozzle  is  situated.  In  the 
mixing  chamber  the  petrol,  as  it  passes  out  of  the  jet,  is  vaporized 
and  mixed  with  air. 

Before  entering  the  inlet  valve  of  the  engine  the  mixtuie  is 
further  diluted  through  an  auxiliary  port  either  attached  to  the 
mixing  chamber  or  formed  in  the  inlet  pipe.  The  amount  of 
mixture  passing  to  the  engine  is  adjusted  by  a  throttle  valve  undei 
control  of  the  driver. 

The  float  chamber  works  on  a  similar  principle  to  that  of  the 
domestic  ball  cock.  A  cylindrical  chamber  is  fitted  inside  with  a 
hollow  metal  box  or  float  free  to  move  vertically  on  a  central  spindle, 
one  end  of  which  is  pointed,  forming  one  part  of  a  needle  valve 
which  governs  the  entrance  of  the  petrol.  When  the  petrol  is  drawn 
out  of  the  float  chamber  into  the  adjoining  mixing  chamber,  the 
float  immediately  sinks,  bringing  into  operation  a  series  of  small 
levers  which  open  the  needle  valve  and  so  allows  the  level  of  petrol 
to  be  restored.  When  the  level  of  the  liquid  is  just  below  the  jet 
the  float  causes  the  levers  to  work  in  the  opposite  direction  and  close 
the  needle  valve.  The  float  is  usually  made  of  brass  or  copper  and 
spun  in  one  piece,  the  top  being  soldered  on.  This  reduces  the  risk 
of  leakage  into  the  float,  since  should  the  float  become  heavier  from 
any  cause  it  will  entirely  upset  the  working  of  the  carburettor. 
Floats,  however,  are  still  made  of  cork  on  several  cars  of  American 
manufacture.  The  float  should  be  dome-shaped  or  strengthened 
slightly  in  some  way  so  that  it  does  not  alter  in  shape,  therefore 
volume,  under  different  atmospheric  pressures.  The  lever  mechanism 
working  the  needle  valve  may  be  above  or  below,  working  from  a 
central  spindle  or  independently  at  the  side.  The  exit  from  the 
float  chamber  into  the  mixing  chamber  should  be  slightly  above  the 
bottom  of  the  former,  so  that  any  impurities  which  have  escaped 
the  various  filters  en  route  shall  be  intercepted. 

As  a  rule,  the  air  inlet  surrounds  the  jet.  The  air  as  it  rushes 
in  helps  to  draw  out  the  petrol,  and  breaks  it  up  into  a  number  of  fine 
particles.  This  disintegration  may  be  furthered  in  various  ways. 


1 68 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


The  spray  may  impinge  directly  on  to  an  inverted  cone,  or  other 
baffle  device.  The  spray  being  thus  diffused,  it  is  more  readily 
converted  into  vapour,  and  it  is  in  a  suitable  condition  to  impregnate 
the  air.  The  conversion  of  the  liquid  petrol  into  a  gaseous  state  is 
attended  with  a  large  absorption  of  heat,  which  renders  the  walls 
of  the  mixing  chamber  comparatively  cold,  and  must  be  counteracted, 
otherwise  it  will  interfere  with  the  continued  evaporation  of  the 
fuel.  This  is  achieved  by  warming  the  incoming  air  through  the 
medium  of  the  exhaust  pipe,  the  mouth  of  the  air  intake  being 
formed  as  a  sleeve  round  it,  or  the  warmth  of  the  cooling  water  may 
achieve  the  same  object.  The  control  of  the  rate  of  entry  of  the 
air,  estimated  roughly  at  10,000  ft.  per  minute,  is  a  difficult 
problem  to  surmount,  chiefly  because  the  internal  combustion 
engine  of  to-day  has  such  a  wide  range  of  speed.  A  throttled- 
down  engine  may  be  revolving  only  at  100  revolutions  per  minute, 
while  with  the  throttle  wide  open  on  a  good  level  road  it  may  be 
moving  at  twenty  times  that  rate.  As  the  suction  increases,  the 
mixture  is  liable  to  get  too  rich  in  petrol,  because  the  air  has  a 
tendency  to  drag,  and  such  a  mixture  does  not  readily  ignite. 

Some  Modern  Types. — The  recognition  of  this  property  of  air  in 
motion  has  brought  into  being  carburettors  having  multiple  jets 
controlled  in  various  ways,  so  that  air  is  drawn  across  a  fewer 
number  of  jets  the  lower  the  speed  of  the  engine.  In  the  Polyrhoe 
carburettor  there  is  a  continuous  line  of  tiny  jets  along  one  side  of 
a  rectangular  throat.  In  this  throat,  which  is  arranged  horizontally, 
moves  a  piston  which  is  withdrawn  by  the  engine  suction.  The 
greater  the  speed,  and  therefore  suction,  the  further  the  piston  is 
drawn  out  of  the  throat,  and  the  greater  the  number  of  jets  exposed 
to  the  rush  of  air.  The  “  T.  &  M.”  multiple-jet  carburettor  is  also 
a  horizontal  piston  type,  and  has  three  jets  arranged  under  the 
throttle  piston.  The  main  air  supply  to  the  tube  into  which  the 
jets  open  is  cone-shaped,  and  the  end  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  is 
covered  by  an  adjustable  shutter,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  placed  an 
auxiliary  air  valve  having  a  coiled  spring  attached,  and  so  arranged 
that  as  the  engine  suction  increases,  more  air  is  admitted  to  the 
choke  or  jet  tube.  There  is  also  an  extra  air  inlet,  the  opening  of 
which  coincides  with  the  throttle  opening.  With  the  White  and 
Poppe  carburettor  the  spray  hole  can  be  varied  in  size,  instead  of 


THE  PETROL  ENGINE 


169 

increasing  the  number  of  jets  used.  It  is  drilled  slightly  out  of  the 
centre  of  the  nipple.  Free  to  turn  upon  this  nipple  fits  a  thimble 
haying  a  similar  eccentric  spray  hole,  which  in  one  position  will  coin¬ 
cide  or  register  with  the  first-mentioned  one.  The  cover  containing 
the  second  hole  is  connected  to  the  throttle  and  rotates  with  it.  When 
the  throttle  is  fully  open  these  two  holes  are  in  line,  while  any 
movement  of  the  throttle  restricts  the  jet  area,  and  so  keeps  the 
mixture  constant  for  all  openings  of  the  throttle.  Over  this 
throttle  is  fitted  a  movable  sleeve  controlling  the  quality  of  the 
mixture. 

Carburettors  are  made  in  many  varieties,  and  will  continue  to 
be  so  as  long  as  each  motor  manufacturer  constructs  his  own 
according  to  his  particular  theory  on  carburation.  There  has  been 
of  late,  however,  a  tendency  for  makers  to  adopt  such  types  as  are 
made  by  specialists. 

The  float  chamber  need  not  be  at  the  side  of  the  jet  chamber, 
but  in  some  instances  is  concentric  with  it ;  likewise  ball  valves  are 
used  in  place  of  needle  valves  controlled  by  the  float,  and  as  already 
pointed  out,  the  vaporizing  passage  may  be  either  vertical  or 
horizontal.  The  air  supply  is  subject  to  many  modifications ; 
generally  there  are  two  passages,  one  of  which  is  controlled  by  a 
valve,  while  the  valves  used  may  be  the  ordinary  poppet  type,  the 
piston  type,  or  of  a  simple  flap  or  butterfly  pattern.  Having 
obtained  the  correct  mixture,  it  then  has  to  be  delivered  to  the 
various  inlet  ports  by  means  of  suitably  designed  piping.  The 
inlet  pipes  should  be  arranged  so  that  the  mixture  has  to  travel 
the  same  distance  in  each  case,  while  as  little  interference  as 
possible  is  made  with  the  new  charge  by  the  one  immediately 
before  it.  The  mixing  chamber  of  the  carburettor  is  therefore 
placed  centrally  by  the  side  of  the  engine  casting,  and  close  to  it, 
so  that  the  piping  is  short,  ensuring  a  minimum  of  alteration  in  the 
mixture,  and  also  to  assist  in  the  compact  designing  of  the  type  of 
piping  or  manifold  used. 

It  is  essential  that  the  mixture  provided  by  the  carburettor 
should  be  suitable  for  the  work  to  be  done,  as  not  only  does  loss  of 
power  and  waste  of  fuel  result,  but  trouble  is  caused  by  overheating 
and  sooting  in  the  combustion  chamber.  The  jet  and  other  parts 
should  be  accessible  so  that  cleaning  may  be  easily  carried  out,  for  it 


170 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


is  of  vital  importance  that  the  spray  hole  should  be  scrupulously 
free  from  grit,  or  foreign  matter  of  any  kind. 

The  Engine . — The  petrol  engine  is  situated  in  the  front  part  of 
the  frame  in  modern  cars,  a  position  which  has  been  chosen  chiefly 
for  its  accessibility,  but  it  adds  to  the  length  of  the  chassis,  tends 
to  distribute  the  weight  unevenly,  and  influences  the  length  of  the 
transmission  system.  It  is,  therefore,  not  ideal  from  the  mechanical 
point  of  view,  but  the  bonnet,  under  which  the  engine  is  placed, 
being  a  prominent  external  feature,  was  soon  looked  upon  as  a 
characteristic  element  of  a  car,  so  that  even  those  who  were  striving 
to  evolve  a  perfect  road  engine  were  driven  to  adopt  the  popular 
style,  or  fail  commercially,  and  there  are  very  few  firms  who  have 
had  the  courage  to  place  the  engine  so  that  the  wheel  base  is  not 
unduly  influenced  thereby. 

The  typical  engine  operates  vertically,  and  may  have  one  to 
four,  six,  or  eight  cylinders,  the  four-cylinder  type  being  the  most 
favoured  for  cars  of  medium  power.  The  cylinder  casting  may  be 
carried  out  in  various  ways,  so  as  to  include  one  to  four  cylinders 
in  a  group.  The  casting  will  again  vary  as  to  the  disposition  of  the 
valves,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  water  jacketing,  the  whole  being 
influenced  by  the  crank  shaft,  and  its  bearings  in  the  crank  case 
below. 

The  cylinder  casting  is  bolted  to  the  upper  half  of  the  crank 
case,  which  not  only  provides  the  top  bearing  for  the  crank  shaft, 
but  in  most  cases  the  lower  bearings  are  attached  directly  to  this 
part  of  the  crank  case  also,  so  that  the  lower  portion  may  be 
removed  separately,  and  inspection  carried  out  with  a  minimum 
of  trouble. 

The  cylinder  casting  provides  the  slide  bearing  for  the  valve 
stems,  while  the  tappets  which  operate  them  have  their  bearings 
usually  supported  on  the  crank  case.  The  crank  case  is  designed 
to  accommodate  the  timing  and  other  gears  which  work  the  valve 
cam  shaft,  water  and  oil  pumps,  and  magneto.  The  cam  shaft  runs 
inside  the  crank  case,  the  internal  webs  of  which  provide  suitable 
bearings. 

To  the  top  half  of  the  crank  case  is  attached  the  lower  half,  often 
called  an  oil  base,  as  it  is  chiefly  used  as  an  oil  reservoir,  and 
seldom  to  support  the  crank  shaft  underneath,  so  that  it  may  be 


Fig.  20—  Section  through  a  pair  of  £  cylinders,  showing  the  arrangement  of  the 
pistons,  connecting  rods  and  crank  shaft.  A, piston;  B,  connecting  rod ;  C,  gudgeon 
pin  ;  D,  piston  rings ;  E,  big  end  of  connecting  rod ;  F,  crank  web  (angled) ;  Or, 
cylinder  plug;  H,  jacket  top  or  cover;  I,  water  jacket ;  J,  compression  tap. 


172 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


constructed  lightly  in  aluminium.  The  upper  half  of  the  crank 
case  has  arms  so  that  it  may  be  fixed  either  direct  to  the  main  or  a 
sub-frame. 

The  Otto  Cycle. — The  principle  under  which  the  engine  works — 
the  Otto  cycle — consists  of  four  distinct  motions,  which  take  place 
during  two  complete  revolutions  of  the  crank  shaft.  The  piston 
being  at  the  top  of  its  travel,  it  moves  downwards  in  the  cylinder, 
and  the  inlet  valve  being  opened,  usually  by  reason  of  inter¬ 
connected  mechanism,  a  vacuum  is  created  in  the  inlet  pipe  leading 
to  the  carburettor.  This  draws  a  charge  of  the  mixture  into  the 
cylinder,  and  the  piston  having  arrived  at  its  lowest  point,  the  inlet 
valve  closes.  This  is  the  inlet  or  inspiration  stroke.  Next  the 
piston  rises  again  in  the  cylinder,  no  valves  being  open,  so  that 
having  arrived  at  the  top  the  charge  of  gas  which  has  just  filled  the 
cylinder  is  now  compressed  within  the  confines  of  the  combustion 
head,  the  area  lying  between  the  top  of  the  piston  and  the  dome  of 
the  cylinder  casting.  The  gas  being  compressed  it  is  exploded  by 
the  electric  spark  at  the  right  moment  by  being  inter-connected 
like  the  valves  with  the  movement  of  the  engine.  This  compression 
stroke  is  immediately  followed  by  the  downward  working  stroke, 
the  result  of  the  explosion.  No  valves  are  open  until  the  piston 
reaches  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  on  the  working  stroke,  then  the 
exhaust  valve  opens,  resulting  in  the  burnt  gases  being  expelled 
through  that  opening  while  the  piston  is  performing  the  upward 
exhaust  stroke.  This  being  completed,  the  exhaust  valve  shuts,  and 
the  inlet  valve  opens  and  the  piston  once  more  performs  the 
inlet  stroke,  and  so  on  through  the  cycle  of  four  operations,  which 
continues  as  long  as  the  engine  is  running. 

I  alee  Timing. — The  valves  do  not  open  immediately  at  the 
beginning  and  end  of  the  piston  strokes.  It  is  usual  for  the  exhaust 
valve  to  open  before  the  piston  reaches  quite  the  end  of  the  working 
stroke,  so  that  the  pressure  within  the  cylinder  shall  be  as  near  as 
possible  equal  to  that  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  next  upward 
movement— the  exhaust  stroke— shall  be  carried  out  with  a  mini¬ 
mum  expenditure  of  energy.  The  exhaust  valve  also  does  not  close 
exactly  at  the  end  of  the  exhaust  stroke,  but  is  kept  open  during  a 
small  portion  of  the  inlet  stroke,  this  having  the  effect  of  clearing 
out  thoroughly  the  remains  of  the  explosion.  Regarding  the  inlet 


THE  PETROL  ENGINE 


*73 


valve,  this  opens  somewhat  late,  so  that  the  incoming  gas  enters  a 
well-swept  cylinder,  and  likewise  it  does  not  close  until  the  com¬ 
pression  stroke  is  creating  a  pressure  equivalent  to  that  of  the 
incoming  charge.  The  gas,  as  it  enters  the  inlet  valve,  has  a  certain 
momentum,  so  that  it  will  continue  to  enter  for  a  short  time,  even 
when  the  piston  is  ascending.  This  timing  of  the  valves  differs 
slightly  with  various  makes  of  engines,  and  even  with  different 
models  made  by  the  same  firm.  The  exact  point  of  opening  and 
closing  is  expressed  by  the  number  of  degrees  from  the  vertical  the 
cranks  are  at  the  critical  moment. 

Engine  Arrangement. — The  engine,  and  its  parts,  and  the  various 
accessories  which  are  assembled  closely  to  it  vary  in  their  arrange¬ 
ment  considerably,  and  their  method  of  disposal  is  one  of  no  little 
interest. 

The  position  of  the  carburettor  has  already  been  touched  upon. 
Its  height  will  depend  on  whether  the  petrol  feed  is  by  gravity  or 
pressure,  and  will  be  in  the  centre,  so  that  the  length  of  inlet  pipe 
is  equal  to  each  inlet  valve.  It  will  not  be  confined  necessarily  to 
a  particular  side  of  the  engine,  but  usually  it  will  be  found  on  the 
inlet  valve  side. 

Valve  Position . — In  designing  the  cylinder  casting  one  leading- 
question  is  the  position  of  the  valves.  These  may  be  on  either  side, 
all  on  the  same  side,  all  on  top,  either  vertically,  horizontally,  or  at 
an  angle,  or  the  valves  may  be  on  the  top  and  at  the  side  as  well. 
When  the  valves  are  either  side,  that  is,  inlet  one  side  and  exhaust 
the  other,  a  T-shape  cylinder  head  is  formed,  and  was  the  leading 
style  until  recently.  Such  an  arrangement  is  symmetrical,  and 
provides  easy  access  to  the  valves,  and  the  valves  are  not  limited  in 
size,  but  there  is  a  slight  disadvantage  in  that  the  combustion 
chamber  is  given  a  larger  surface  than  would  be  obtained  by  other 
means.  The  larger  the  surface  of  the  combustion  chamber,  the 
more  chance  there  is  of  the  heat  being  conveyed  away  at  the  vital 
moment  of  the  ignition,  thereby  destroying  some  of  the  force  of  the 
explosion  or  working  stroke.  With  the  valves  on  either  side  there 
is  a  necessity  for  two  cam  shafts  to  work  them,  but  if  they  are  all 
on  one  side,  one  shaft  and  its  pinion  wheel,  and  other  details,  except 
the  cams  themselves,  are  avoided.  This  arrangement  of  valves 
creates  the  “1-type  cylinder  casting,  a  similar  shape  being  adopted 


T74 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


when  the  inlet  valves  only  are  on  the  top.  This  “\ -shape  cylinder 
gives  a  more  ideal  combustion  chamber,  but  if  compactness  is 
studied  the  size  of  the  valves  is  limited  if  none  are  on  the  top. 
Some  successful  cars  are  fitted  with  all  the  valves  in  the  head. 
The  advantages  claimed  for  this  design  are  that  they  are  easily  got 
at,  the  sides  of  the  cylinder  are  left  free  for  other  articles,  the  inlet 
and  outlet  of  the  gases  are  along  direct  paths,  and  the  cylinder  is 
easy  to  clean ;  but  on  the  other  hand  the  transmission  arrangements 
are  somewhat  more  complicated,  especially  if  the  valves  are  set  at 
an  angle,  in  order  to  get  the  heads  of  good  area.  If  the  inlet  valves 
are  on  the  top  and  the  exhaust  valves  at  the  side,  then  the  former 
allows  of  easy  inspection,  and  facilitates  entry  of  the  gas,  while  the 
latter  are  in  a  position  to  be  efficiently  water- jacketed  where  it  is 
most  needed. 

The  Maudslay  engine  has  all  the  valves  and  the  cam  shaft  as 
well  mounted  overhead.  The  crankshaft  below  is  provided  at  the 
forward  end  with  a  skew-gear  wheel,  which  drives  another  at  right 
angles  fastened  to  a  vertical  shaft.  At  the  top  end  of  this  shaft  is 
a  universal  coupling  and  another  pair  of  skew  gears,  so  that  the 
motion  can  be  transferred  from  vertical  back  again  to  horizontal, 
while  the  coupling  is  provided  with  a  hinge,  so  that  the  cam  shaft 
may  be  hinged  back  bodily  when  required.  The  Germain  engine 
has  an  overhead  cam  shaft  driven  by  chains,  while  the  Pipe  engine 
is  a  type  where  the  cam  shaft  is  in  the  normal  position,  and  the 
movement  of  the  cams  is  transmitted  to  the  valves  by  long  vertical 
rods  and  rocking  levers. 

The  Cylinder  Casting. — The  cylinder  casting  is  made  of  hard, 
dense  pig  iron,  the  quality  selected  being  one  which  will  flow  freely 
when  being  cast,  will  machine  easily  and  smoothly,  and  provide 
a  good  wearing  surface.  The  analysis  of  the  iron  should  betray  a 
comparative  absence  of  sulphur.  The  length  of  the  cylinder  casting 
depends  on  the  number  of  cylinders  and  whether  they  are  cast 
singly  or  in  batches.  Four  cylinders  are  often  cast  in  twos  or  all 
together  (en  bloc  or  monobloc),  or  a  six-cylinder  engine  may  be 
arranged  in  three  “  twos,”  or  two  “  threes.”  So  far  the  six-cylinder 
engine  has  not  been  cast  as  a  whole  in  any  quantity,  and  no  uneven 
arrangements  have  been  found  advantageous.  The  cylinders  are 
cast  together  to  make  the  engine  more  compact,  but  by  having  one 


THE  PETROL  ENGINE 


*75 


cylinder  as  close  as  possible  to  the  next,  it  will  be  readily  appre¬ 
ciated  that  a  limit  will  be  placed  on  the  size  of  the  valves,  so  that 
a  monobloc  casting  is  particularly  suited  to  one  set  of  valves  only 
being  at  the  side.  Some  castings  do  not  provide  for  water  jacking 
between  pairs  of  cylinders.  This  gives  extra  compactness,  and 
though  it  would  appear  to  be  wrong  to  allow  part  of  the  cylinder  to 
go  uncooled,  yet  most  successful  engines  are  designed  in  this  way. 
The  monobloc  style  gives  a  neat  appearance  to  the  engine,  and  it  is 
quite  possible  to  cast  on  the  exhaust  jacket  and  its  cooling  ribs  with 
it.  In  designing  this  important  casting  care  has  to  be  taken  to 
guard  against  unequal  expansion,  while  ample  valve  and  water-jacket 
areas  must  be  provided. 

The  Number  of  Cylinders  and  Order  of  Firing. — The  cylinder 
walls  are  from  J  in.  to  |  in.  thick.  Two  cylinders  may  be  used  for 
engines  of  20  horsepower  and  under,  but  above  that  four  or  six 
cylinders  should  be  adopted.  Approximately  one  6-ins.  cylinder,  two 
4J-ins.  and  four  3-ins.  cylinders  develop  at  the  same  piston  speed 
equal  power,  but  the  less  the  number  of  cylinders  the  slower  the 
desirable  car  speed,  and  the  heavier  the  flywheel  necessary.  The 
flywheel  is  sometimes  half  the  weight  of  the  engine,  and  in  a  single¬ 
cylinder  engine  it  has  to  carry  the  crank  shaft  round  during  1^  revo¬ 
lutions  out  of  every  two,  as  there  is  only  one  working  stroke  in  four. 
The  impulse  at  the  crank  shaft  of  a  multicylinder  engine  is  also  con¬ 
trolled  by  the  order  in  which  the  piston  descends,  and  it  is  usually 
arranged  that  there  is  never  more  than  one  cylinder  between  the 
piston  which  is  descending  on  its  working  stroke,  and  the  one  which 
has  just  performed  that  operation.  Therefore  in  four-cylinder 
engine  the  firing  is  in  the  order  of  1,  3,  4,  2,  or  1,  2,  4,  3. 

Pistons. — The  pistons  are  usually  a  hollow  iron  casting,  but 
they  may  be  made  of  cast  steel  or  malleable  cast-iron,  or  formed  by 
welding  together  two  halves  of  pressed  steel.  The  steel  pistons  are 
a  little  lighter,  but  they  are  more  expensive  and  liable  to  seize. 
Lightness  is  striven  for  because  it  means  smoother  working. 
Between  the  piston  and  the  cylinder  walls  it  is  essential  that  there 
should  be  a  gastight  joint,  although  one  must  slide  in  the  other. 
This  is  carried  out  by  furnishing  the  walls  of  the  piston  with 
grooves,  and  springing  therein  three  and  sometimes  four  cast-iron 
piston  rings,  which  are  split  for  the  purpose.  In  order  that  the 


T7?/  /  /  /  S/JS's  /  JS-2LZZSZ2.2VZZZ 


Fig.  21. — End  section  of  a  petrol  engine.  A,  sparking  plug;  B,  valve  cap; 
C,  valve  nead  (coned) ;  D,  valve  stem;  E,  valve  guide;  F,  valve  spring;  G,  tappet; 
H,  adjustment  of  tappet ;  I,  tappet  guide ;  J,  clearance  between  tappet  and  valve 
stem  ;  K,  roller  of  tappet ;  L,  cam  shaft ;  M,  pinion  on  crank  shaft ;  N,  pinion  on 
cam  shaft ;  O,  cylinder  port ;  P,  valve  chamber ;  Q,  cap,  supported  by  cotter,  holding 
base  of  spring ;  R,  crank  case  arm  bearing  on  chassis. 


THE  PETROL  ENGINE 


177 


rings  shall  spring  together  tightly  at  the  cut  they  are  made  from 
a  tube  which  has  the  bore  machined  out  eccentrically,  therefore  the 
rings  when  they  are  cut  off  from  the  tube  are  wider  at  one  side, 
gradually  tapering  to  the  other  where  the  cut  is  pade.  A  simple 
diagonal  cut  is  best,  as  it  is  less  liable  to  fracture,  but  the  stepped 
joint  has  been  ingeniously  designed  so  that  one  ring  encircles  the 
piston  twice.  The  piston,  if  slightly  domed,  is  more  able  to  with¬ 
stand  the  pressure  of  the  explosion,  and  is  attached  to  the  connecting 
rod  at  the  small  end  by  means  of  the  gudgeon  pin  inside,  which  is 
attached  to  a  bearing  each  side  of  the  piston  walls.  The  gudgeon 
pin  is  made  a  fixture  to  the  piston  in  various  ways  and  is  case- 
hardened  to  resist  the  wear  of  the  small  end  of  the  connecting  rod. 
The  gudgeon  pin  centre  should  be  at  the  centre  of  the  piston 
bearing  surface.  The  piston  is  very  slightly  tapered  towards  the 
top  so  that  where  the  heat  is  greatest  it  may  have  a  chance  to  expand. 
Lubrication  channels  are  formed  in  the  cylinder  walls,  and  the 
water  jackets  extend  just  to  the  depth  of  the  stroke. 

In  viewing  the  cylinder  and  crank  shaft  from  the  end  it  is  usual 
to  have  the  centre  of  the  one  immediately  over  that  of  the  other, 
but  the  experiment  has  been  tried  of  off- setting  the  cylinder  ( desaxe ) 
so  that  the  two  are  not  quite  in  line.  For  this  arrangement  it  is 
claimed  that  the  angle  of  the  connecting  rod  is  lessened,  therefore 
the  side  thrust  in  the  downward  working  stroke,  although  it  may  be 
increased  a  little  on  the  upward  compression  stroke,  the  balance  of 
the  two  being  a  saving  in  wear  and  tear  on  the  parts  involved. 

The  connecting  rod  will  most  likely  be  a  steel  stamping  of  I , 
round,  or  rectangular  section.  As  the  connecting  rod  is  always 
under  compression,  no  matter  what  part  of  the  cycle  is  being 
performed,  the  I -section  rod  is  the  best  to  resist  bending,  while 
the  round  shape  may  be  drilled  for  a  lubrication  channel  so  as  to 
convey  oil  to  the  gudgeon  pin.  The  bottom  or  big  end  of  the  con¬ 
necting  rod  is  attached  to  the  crank  pin  between  two  of  the  throws 
or  cranks  of  the  crank  shaft,  and  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  big 
end  in  two  halves  so  that  it  may  be  fitted,  except  in  a  single¬ 
cylinder  engine,  where  it  can  be  pushed  over  the  end. 

Water  Jacketing. — The  design  of  the  water  jacketing  also  in¬ 
fluences  the  cylinder  casting,  after  the  valve  position  has  been 
decided.  In  some  cases  the  water  jackets  are  separate  castings,  or 

N 


i78 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


they  may  be  of  sheet  metal.  The  water  jacketing  should  provide 
equal  cooling  facilities  all  round,  and  be  of  ample  bore '  and  simple 
section  so  that  no  awkward  corners  are  provided  to  impede  the  free 
movement  of  the  water  or  harbour  steam. 

Each  valve  is  provided  with  a  valve  cap  in  the  cylinder  casting 


Fig.  22. — Method  of  supporting  crank  shaft  in  top  half  of  crank  case.  A,  B,  top 
and  bottom  halves  of  crank  case  ;  C,  bottom  bearing  on  crank  shaft ;  D,  suspension 
bolt ;  E,  crank  shaft ;  F,  cam  shaft  opening  in  web  of  crank  case. 


large  enough  to  pass  the  valve  head  through  when  it  is  required  to 
remove  it,  and  there  will  be  plugs  screwed  in  at  the  top  of  the 
cylinder,  which  make  a  gas  and  water-tight  fitting  with  the  hole 


THE  PETROL  ENGINE 


179 


which  was  made  necessary  in  order  to  support  the  core  in  casting. 
The  valve  cap  is  often  bored  to  take  the  sparking  plug,  and  the 
cylinder  plug  the  priming  cup  and  compression  tap.  There  will 
also  be  various  lids  and  covers  provided  for  facilitating  inspection 
of  the  cylinders  and  valves. 

Crank-sliaft  Bearings  and  Crank  Cases. — The  cylinder  casting 
design,  besides  depending  on  the  valve  and  cooling  arrangements, 
is  largely  influenced  by  the  position  of  the  crank  shaft  bearings. 
Space  is  saved  by  having  one  bearing  to  more  than  two  cranks  of  the 
shaft,  but  where  expense  and  good  design  is  of  less  importance  than 
compactness,  there  is  a  bearing  to  each  pair  of  cranks.  It  will  be 
understood  that  a  minimum  of  bearings  is  striven  for  when  the 
cylinders  are  cast  en  bloc,  but  the  whole  width  of  two  bearings  is 
not  saved  in,  say,  a  four-cylinder  engine,  since  it  is  necessary  to 
have  a  somewhat  longer  bearing  to  each  one  if  there  are  three  than 
if  there  had  been  five  bearings.  The  crankshaft  is  strengthened  at 
the  flywheel,  sometimes  bored  for  lubrication,  and  may  be  built 
up,  made  as  a  stamping,  bent  to  shape,  or  machined  from  the  solid, 
and  the  forward  end  is  adapted  to  the  attachment  of  the  starting 
handle.  The  lower  half  of  the  crank  case,  as  pointed  out,  does  not 
usually  provide  a  bearing  for  the  crank  shaft,  but  this  is  situated  in 
the  heavier  top  half.  It  is  utilized  as  a  cover  for  the  crank  shaft 
and  as  an  oil  bath,  is  usually  so  constructed  that  a  small  trough  is 
immediately  below  each  big  end,  into  which  a  small  scoop  can 
operate  at  each  revolution,  and  a  bulkhead  or  baffle  plate  is  provided 
so  that  the  oil  is  kept  in  its  proper  place  when  the  car  is  on  a 
gradient. 

Valve  Mechanism. — Returning  to  the  consideration  of  the  valves, 
there  is  yet  to  discuss  their  design  and  actuating  mechanism. 

The  valve,  which  is  of  mild  or  nickel  steel,  consists  of  a  more  or 
less  flat  head,  usually  called  a  mushroom  head,  attached  to  a  thin 
stem,  under  which,  vertically  in  line,  is  a  valve  tappet  or  push-rod, 
another  thin  rod,  whose  lower  end  is  in  contact  with  the  cam  on 
the  cam  shaft. 

The  valve  head  is  somewhat  stronger  if  it  is  slightly  domed,  and 
the  edge  is  countersunk  so  that  it  may  fit  into  a  similar  seating  in 
the  valve  port.  This  shape  has  been  found  to  make  a  more  gas- 
tight  joint,  and  is  easier  to  regrind  when  necessary  (for  which  reason 


i8o 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


the  head  is  slotted  to  receive  a  screwdriver  or  similar  tool)  than  a 
valve  which  is  flat  underneath.  Strength  to  withstand  the  force  of 
the  explosions  and  the  continual  hammering  is  also  gained  by 
swelling  out  the  neck  of  the  stem  immediately  under  the  head,  and 
also  enlarging  the  diameter  of  the  stem  some  distance  down,  so  that 
it  may  better  resist  the  heat  of  the  exhaust  gases.  The  old-fashioned 

engine  was  fitted  with  automatic 
inlet  valves,  which  were  operated 
simply  by  reason  of  the  differ¬ 
ence  in  pressure  between  the 
outside  air  and  that  in  the  cylin¬ 
der  during  the  inspiration  stroke, 
and  consequently  were  unreliable 
for  punctual  working  at  high 
speeds,  so  they  were  abandoned. 
These  valves  also  had  to  be  made 
large,  light  in  weight,  and  with  a 
small  lift ;  but  now  that  all  the 
valves  work  mechanically,  it  has 
been  possible  to  make  the  inlet 
valve  as  small  as  the  exhaust 
valve,  and  with  a  longer  lift. 
Consequently  it  has  become  a 
common  practice  to  make  the 
valves  interchangeable,  and  the 
design  to  depend  on  the  require¬ 
ments  of  the  exhaust  valve, 
which  are  somewhat  more  exaet- 

ing,  owing  to  the  greater  tempe- 
Fig.  23.— Single-cylinder  arrangement  f  nrocD„i 
with  split  flywheel.  latuie  piesent. 

The  upper  end  of  the  valve 
is  supported  in  a  guide  formed  in  the  valve-chamber  of  the  cylinder 
casting.  Immediately  below  a  coiled  spring  encircles  the  stem, 
having  its  top  bearing  under  the  valve  chamber,  and  its  lower 
one  on  a  cap  or  collar  kept  in  position  by  a  cotter  pin  passing 
through  the  stem.  This  spring  is  compressed  as  the  valve  is  opened 
upwards,  and  brings  it  smartly  down  again  when  the  tappet  rod 
below  falls.  This  tappet  rod  is  also  supported  in  a  guide,  often  of 


THE  PETROL  ENGINE 


1 8 1 


bronze,  fastened  to  the  crank-case,  and  usually  strengthened  at  the 
base.  It  is  necessary  that  the  tappet  rod  should  be  accurately  fitted 
in  the  guide,  so  that  no  wobbling  action  takes  place  and  so  create 
undue  wear  and  tear.  At  the  bottom  of  the  tappet  rod  a  roller  is 
centred,  which  comes  directly  in  contact  with  the  cam.  The  tappet 
rod  is  often  made  to  respond  to  the  working  of  a  coiled  spring  in 


Fig.  24. — Two-cylinder  crank  shaft 
arrangement,  cranks  set  at  180  degrees. 
No  water  jacketing  between  cylinders. 


Fig.  25. — Two-cylinder  crank  shaft 
arrangement,  cranks  set  together.  A, 
balance  weight.  Separate  water  jacketing 
to  each  cylinder. 


a  similar  manner  to  the  plan  adopted  for  the  valve  itself,  the  spring 
being  inserted  in  the  guide. 

The  valve  stem  does  not  rest  directly  on  the  end  of  the  tappet 
rod,  but  a  small  clearance  (about  the  thickness  of  a  visiting  card)  is 
left,  so  that  it  may  be  assured  that  the  valve  drops  right  on  to  its 
seat  when  it  closes.  In  order  that  there  shall  not  be  too  much 
clearance  between  stem  and  tappet  after  the  engine  has  been  run 
some  time,  a  good  car  will  be  provided  with  a  tappet  adjustment, 
so  that  by  adjusting  a  pair  of  nuts  the  tappet  will  be  pulled  upwards 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


182 

the  required  amount.  A  non-metallic  pad  at  the  top  of  the  tappet 
is  considered  by  some  to  ensure  quieter  running,  which  is  nowadays 
further  enhanced  by  enclosing  the  whole  valve  system  of  stems  and 
tappets  with  a  side  plate,  while  the  grouping  of  the  valves  all  on  one 
side,  creating  fewer  working  parts,  necessarily  means  less  noise. 
The  striking  ends  of  the  valve  stem  and  tappet  rod  will  probably  be 
case-hardened  and  bevelled,  so  as  not  to  burr  over.  It  is  necessary 
that  the  valve  and  its  mechanism  should  be  light,  so  that  it  may 


Fig.  26. — Three-cylinder  four-bearing  crank  shaft  arrangement.  The  end  diagram 
shows  the  setting  out  of  the  connecting  rods,  A  corresponding  to  a,  and  so  on. 
Separate  water  jacketing  to  each  cylinder. 


open  and  close  readily,  at,  say,  ten  times  a  second,  a  distance  of 
one-third  of  an  inch. 

The  Cam  and  other  Shafts. — The  cams  which  operate  the  tappet 
rods  are  attached  to  a  cam  shaft  by  pinning,  or,  as  is  frequently 
done,  they  are  formed  out  of  the  solid.  The  design  of  the  cam  is  of 
great  importance,  and  on  its  profile  depends  the  smart  working  of 
the  valve.  The  cam  shaft  has  bearings  in  the  crank  case  casting 
which  may  correspond  with  the  number  of  crank  shaft  bearings. 
The  shaft  can  be  passed  through  a  hole  large  enough  to  pass  the 
cams,  or  it  may  be  placed  in  lengthways,  a  long  cover-plate  being 
afterwards  bolted  on.  The  shaft  revolves  at  half  the  speed  of  the 


THE  PETROL  ENGINE 


183 

crank  shaft,  because  each  valve  is  only  required  to  open  once  during 
two  revolutions  of  the  crank,  therefore  a  pinion  wheel  is  attached  to 
the  end  of  the  cam  shaft,  which  has  double  the  number  of  teeth  to 
a  similar  one  keyed  to  the  crank  shaft. 

These  timing  wheels  are  encased,  the  crank  case  being  designed 
to  embrace  them. 

If  the  pump  and  magneto  are  driven  at  right  angles  to  the  cam 
shaft,  then  some  form  of  bevel  or  skew  gearing  is  provided. 


Fig.  27. — Four -cylinder,  five  bearing,  crankshaft  arrangement. 

In  many  cars  the  carburettor  and  magneto  are  carried  on  the 
same  side,  the  latter  being  either  at  the  front  or  rear  of  the  engine. 
The  rear  position,  being  a  drier  one,  is  considered  the  best,  as 
there  is  no  dampness  to  produce  short-circuiting,  and  also  the 
wiring  is  shorter  if  there  is  any  part  of  the  ignition  apparatus, 
such  as  a  coil,  on  the  dashboard.  If  the  magneto  is  provided  with  a 
good  cover,  there  is  little  danger  of  a  spark  finding  its  way  to  the 


184 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


carburettor,  but  this  danger  may  be  considered  by  some  to  be  suffi¬ 
cient  to  warrant  placing  the  magneto  and  carburettor  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  engine.  If  the  magneto,  pump,  and  fan  are  driven 
from  the  same  shaft,  it  is  a  convenience  if  any  of  them  can  be 
dismounted  without  disturbing  the  others,  a  consideration  which 
applies  in  designing  other  parts  of  the  car. 


Fig.  28.— Four-cylinder,  three-bearing,  crank  shaft  arrangement. 


The  design  of  the  cylinder  casting  will  vary  also  according  to 
the  method  of  assembly  used.  It  is  becoming  customary  to  continue 
the  casting  right  back  to  the  clutch,  where  a  machined  facing 
receives  the  gear-box.  The  casting  will  not  necessarily  embrace  the 
flywheel,  as  this  may  be  carried  right  in  front,  a  position  which 
increases  the  car  road  clearance.  Arms  are  provided  for  bolting 


THE  PETROL  ENGINE 


185 


the  engine  to  the  frame,  and  if  three-point  suspension  is  adopted 
(which  is  considered  to  allow  for  whip  of  the  frame  without  jamming), 
the  engine  then  will  have  a  single  bearing  at  one  end. 

Sleeve  and  Piston  Valves. — The  sleeve-valve  engine,  as  applied  to 
the  Daimler,  Rover,  Minerva,  and  Panhard  cars,  is  an  interesting 
deviation  from  the  normal  design.  Here  a  water- jacketted  cylinder 
is  surrounded  by  two  concentric  sliding  sleeves  fitted  so  as  to 
slide  independently  inside  and  outside  one  another  respectively. 
Each  sleeve  is  provided  with  horizontal  slits  or  ports.  When  the 


Fig.  29. — Six-cylinder,  four -bearing,  crank  shaft  arrangement.  The  end  diagram 
shows  the  position  out  of  the  connecting  rods,  A  corresponding  to  a ,  and  so  on. 


ports  of  both  sleeves  register  together  on  the  inlet  side,  the  gas  is 
drawn  into  the  cylinder  by  the  downward  stroke  of  the  piston  in  the 
usual  way,  and  likewise  a  similar  pair  come  into  line  during  the 
expulsion  of  the  gases  on  the  other  side.  These  sleeves  are  worked 
by  being  connected  at  their  lower  ends  to  connecting  rods  which 
have  a  throw  from  a  small  crank  shaft  situated  in  a  similar  position 
to  the  ordinary  cam  shaft,  and  in  this  case  driven  by  a  chain  from 
a  small  pinion  on  the  main  crank  shaft.  Each  sleeve  has  its 
separate  connecting  rod,  the  outer  one  being  the  longer,  although  the 
throw  is  the  same.  The  ports  are  so  arranged  that  when  two  on 
the  same  side  register,  the  two  on  the  other  side  are  well  apart,  so 


1 86 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


that  there  is  no  exit  on  that  side,  and  vice  versa.  These  sliding 
shells  extend  right  np  into  a  cone-shaped  combustion  head,  which 
is  detachable,  and  it  is  provided  with  a  set  of  three  narrow  and  one 
broad  piston  rings,  so  that  gas  may  not  escape  upwards,  while  the 
usual  piston  rings  in  the  piston  prevent  the  escape  of  the  gas 
downwards. 

Other  types  of  sliding  valves  are  the  true  piston  ones,  which 
operate  in  a  small  cylinder  of  their  own,  and  may  be  actuated  from 
a  small  crank  shaft  either  at  the  usual  side  position  or  on  the  top. 

The  Exhaust  Pipe  ancl  Silencer. — When  the  burnt  gases  leave 
the  exhaust  port,  they  are  carried  along  the  exhaust  pipe  by  reason 
of  the  pressure  present  into  the  silencer  situated  at  some  convenient 
spot  near  the  rear  of  the  frame.  The  gas  in  its  passage  often  warms 
the  air  inlet  of  the  carburettor,  creates  pressure  for  the  fuel  and 
lubrication  feeds,  and  sometimes  a  foot  warmer  in  the  body.  The 
pressure  remaining  is  dissipated  by  the  special  construction  of  the 
internal  arrangement  of  the  silencer.  The  cooling  of  the  gas  by 
the  ribs  on  the  first  portion  of  the  exhaust  pipe  initially  reduces  the 
pressure.  The  silencer  is  divided  into  several  compartments  by  per¬ 
forated  baffle  plates,  so  that  as  it  passes  from  one  chamber  to  the 
other,  the  gas  is  cooled,  and  broken  up  into  many  streams.  The 
exhaust  pipe  is  ample  in  area,  so  that  pressure  is  not  increased, 
while  a  direct  path  assists  towards  the  same  object.  The  control  of 
the  exhaust  gas  must  not  be  too  drastic,  otherwise  a  considerable 
amount  of  back  pressure  will  result,  and  power  thereby  be  lost.  If 
the  ignition  is  faulty,  an  unexploded  charge  may  get  into  the  silencer, 
which  will  probably  be  ignited  by  the  next  charge.  A  silencer  has 
to  be  dismantled  every  8000  miles  or  so  for  cleaning.  If  well 
designed  it  will  allow  of  a  smooth  issuing  of  the  exhaust  at  a  low 
pressure,  therefore  with  little  noise  on  impact  with  the  atmosphere. 
The  noise  which  results  if  no  silencer  is  fitted  is  made  use  of  with 
the  exhaust  cut  out,  as  mentioned  later  on. 

The  Two-Stroke  Cycle. — It  is  also  possible  to  work  an  internal- 
combustion  engine  by  a  different  set  of  valve  operations  other  than 
the  Otto  cycle.  With  the  two-stroke  engine,  the  crank  chamber 
has  another  office  to  fulfil,  for  the  inlet  valve  opens  directly  into  it 
instead  of  at  the  upper  end  of  the  cylinder.  The  cylinder,  piston, 
and  crank  chamber  are  similar  to  that  of  the  four-stroke  engine, 


THE  PETROL  ENGINE 


187 


but  besides  the  inlet  valve  opening  into  the  crank  chamber,  there  is 
an  independent  passage-way  from  this  part  of  the  engine  leading  to 
the  cylinder,  and  opening  at  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  piston  when 
it  is  at  the  bottom  of  its  stroke.  Opposite,  in  the  cylinder  wall,  is 
the  exhaust  port.  The  inlet  valve  opens  at  the  upstroke  of  the 
piston,  drawing  in  a  charge  of  gas  into  the  crank  case.  This  is  an 
initial  operation,  and  not  part  of  the  working  cycle.  The  next  time 
the  piston  moves  downwards  in  the  cylinder,  the  gas  in  the  crank 
case  is  compressed,  the  valve  in  the  crank  case  allowing  of  entry 
only.  The  gas  being  compressed,  therefore  endeavours  to  escape, 
consequently  passing  through  the  independent  passage  into  the 
cylinder  above  the  piston.  The  piston  then  returning  upwards 
compresses  this  charge,  and  the  pressure  being  reduced  in  the 
crank  chamber  more  gas  is  drawn  in,  so  that  in  this  upward  move¬ 
ment  of  the  piston,  compression  is  taking  place  above  the  piston, 
and  suction  below  it.  The  charge  above  is  then  fired  in  the  usual 
way,  and  when  the  piston  has  descended,  the  exhaust  gases  are 
allowed  to  escape  by  way  of  the  exhaust  port,  while  during  this 
movement  the  gas  below  has  again  been  compressed,  and  the  exhaust 
being  still  open  the  compressed  gas  removes  the  residue  of  the 
exhaust  gases.  This  simplicity  has  been  taken  advantage  of  for 
marine  work,  and  there  are  signs  that  the  two-stroke  engine  will  be 
more  largely  adopted  for  road  work,  especially  as  improvements  are 
continually  being  made.  This  type  of  engine  needs  an  easier 
working  carburettor. 

A  variation  of  the  two-stroke  type  is  employed  in  the  Yalveless 
car.  This  engine  has  two  vertical  water- jacketed  cylinders,  with  a 
combustion  chamber  and  an  air-tight  crank  case  common  to  both. 
The  connecting  rods  are  attached  to  two  flywheels,  having  teeth  so 
that  by  intermeshing  the  pistons  move  together,  but  the  flywheels 
in  opposite  directions,  so  reducing  engine  vibration  to  a  minimum. 
There  are  no  engine  valves,  but  only  an  inlet  and  exhaust  port.  The 
first  charge  having  been  drawn  in  by  hand,  the  ascending  pistons 
compress  the  gas  above  them,  and  work  the  air  inlet  of  the  cai- 
burettor  below,  which  is  so  placed  that  the  air  only  is  drawn  into 
the  double  crank  chamber,  although  it  causes  the  jet  to  work,  but  the 
mixture  can  only  pass  above  the  pistons.  The  charge  being  fired, 
the  pistons  descend  past  the  exhaust  port,  most  of  the  burnt  gases 


1 88 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


escaping,  while  simultaneously  the  inlet  valve  is  opening,  allowing 
the  fresh  gas  to  enter,  which  is  forced  upwards  by  the  compressed 
air  passing  from  the  crank  case,  which,  as  before,  drives  out  the 
residue  of  exhaust  gases.  The  pistons  then  re-ascend,  closing  both 
ports,  and  the  cycle  of  operations  is  repeated. 

Horsepower. — However  ingeniously  the  engine  may  be  con¬ 
structed,  and  its  various  accessories  arranged,  this  will  not  compen¬ 
sate  the  motorist  if  his  car  does  not  develop  on  the  road  the  power 
anticipated.  Power,  it  should  be  remembered,  is  not  simply  force, 
when  considering  its  technical  meaning  in  mechanics,  but  is  the 
rate  of  doing  work.  Therefore,  in  order  to  arrive  at  the  useful 
output  of  an  engine,  we  must  have  data  relating  to  force,  time,  and 
distance.  The  unit  of  power  is  one  horse  power,  and  although  it 
was  based  by  James  Watt  on  the  work  of  a  powerful  horse,  it  may 
be  as  well  to  dissociate  the  term  entirely  from  the  work  of  that 
animal,  and  remember  it  simply  as  83,000  ft.-lbs.  per  minute,  or 
the  force  required  to  lift  33,000  lbs.  one  foot  in  one  minute  ;  so 
that,  to  determine  the  horsepower,  we  have  to  calculate  in  foot-lbs. 
the  work  done  in  one  minute  and  divide  it  by  33,000. 

The  speed  at  which  the  engine  works  is  expressed  at  so  many 
revolutions  per  minute,  while  the  distance  is  calculated  by  the 
piston-travel  or  stroke ;  therefore  the  piston  speed  will  be  the 
engine  revolutions  per  minute  multiplied  by  the  stroke.  The  force 
developed  will  depend  on  the  compression  present  at  the  moment  of 
firing  less  the  force  absorbed  by  producing  the  compression,  and 
various  frictional  losses  in  the  engine  and  transmission  system. 

From  the  elementary  point  of  view,  the  greater  the  piston 
speed,  the  greater  would  be  the  expected  engine  power,  but  after  a 
certain  point  has  been  reached,  the  real  effective  power  does  not 
increase  with  the  engine  speed  because  the  friction  is  not  propor¬ 
tionally  overcome,  and  vibration  will  also  be  increasing,  which  in  a 
high-class  motor-carriage  has  necessarily  to  be  done  away  with  as 
much  as  possible. 

The  less  distance  the  piston  has  to  travel  the  sooner  it  will  be 
able  to  communicate  a  complete  revolution  to  the  crank-shaft,  but 
leverage  is  lost,  the  throw  of  the  shaft  being  half  the  piston-stroke, 
and  it  is  difficult,  therefore,  to  maintain  a  high  speed. 

A  short  stroke  allows  of  a  lighter  engine,  but  to  develop  the  same 


THE  PETROL  ENGINE 


189 


horsepower  a  short- stroke  engine  would  be  moving  faster  than  one 
with  a  longer  stroke ;  therefore  there  would  be  more  wear,  tear,  and 
vibration  for  the  same  amount  of  work  done.  Length  of  stroke  has 
a  decided  effect  on  weight,  therefore  in  motor  cars  this  is  not 
exceeded  beyond  what  is  absolutely  necessary,  and  in  the  majority 
of  cases  bore  and  stroke  are  within  a  little  the  same ;  generally  the 
stroke  is  slightly  in  excess  of  the  bore. 

The  stroke,  however,  may  be  increased  in  the  future  if  the 
present  taxation  horsepower  formula  is  unaltered. 

The  bore  of  the  cylinder  multiplied  by  the  stroke  expresses  the 
volume  swept  by  the  piston,  but  does  not  include  the  remaining 
portion  between  the  head  of  the  piston  when  at  its  highest  point, 
and  the  top  of  the  cylinder  head.  This  space  is  the  volume  occu¬ 
pied  by  the  mixture  when  it  is  compressed,  and  the  ratio  between 
these  two  volumes  decides  in  some  measure  the  force  developed. 

The  expanding  force  occurring  on  ignition  depends  also  on  the 
strength  of  the  spark,  and,  however  well  the  cylinder  and  piston 
may  be  designed,  it  can  be  easily  made  ineffective  by  a  weak  or 
faulty  ignition.  Again,  the  quality  of  the  mixture  itself  must  be  up 
to  the  mark,  but  a  strong  spark  will  often  compensate  for  a  weak 
compression  or  even  a  faulty  charge,  so  it  can  be  seen  how  important 
it  is  that  the  electrical  equipment  of  the  car  shall  be  the  best 
procurable  and  maintained  at  its  highest  efficiency. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


IGNITION 

In  the  internal-combustion  engine  the  mixture  of  petrol  vapour  and 
air  is  drawn  down  into  the  cylinder  from  the  carburettor  in  an  un¬ 
compressed  state,  quite  incapable  of  doing  useful  work  without  further 
treatment.  The  next  and  upward  stroke  of  the  piston  compresses 
the  gaseous  mixture,  thereby  imparting  to  it  a  certain  amount  of 
heat  with  an  accompanying  desire  to  expand,  but  not  sufficient  for 
the  purpose  required.  The  charge,  however,  is  now  confined  within 
the  narrow  limits  of  the  head  of  the  cylinder,  and,  if  it  is  further 
heated,  or,  better  still,  set  alight  and  exploded,  it  will  desire  to 
expand  with  a  considerable  amount  of  force,  and  according  to  the 
amount  of  heat  generated,  and  the  area  of  the  chamber  which 
contains  the  gas  at  the  moment  of  ignition,  the  greater  will  be  the 
pressure  exerted  on  the  piston  to  send  it  downwards  on  its  only 
really  working  stroke. 

As  the  petrol  engine  cranks  revolve  generally  at  more  than  a 
thousand  revolutions  a  minute,  and  there  is  one  explosion  stroke  in 
every  four,  an  efficient  explosion  will  be  required  some  five  hundred 
times  a  minute,  as  each  stroke  represents  half  a  cycle  of  the  crank ; 
that  is  to  say,  the  explosions  take  place  more  than  eight  times  a 
second,  even  for  a  one-cylinder  engine.  This  rapid  firing  can  be 
effected  by  the  repeated  entrance  and  withdrawal  of  an  igniting 
agency,  or  the  presence  of  a  continual  source  of  heat.  In  some 
types  of  ordinary  factory  gas  engines  the  flame  is  automatically 
admitted  to  the  cylinder-head  at  the  proper  intervals  through  a 
slide-valve,  or  a  portion  of  the  cylinder-head  has  a  platinum  tube 
fixed  into  it,  which  is  kept  at  a  red  heat  by  a  bunsen  burner  playing 
upon  it.  This  method  was  used  in  the  earliest  type  of  motor  cars, 
and  was  known  as  tube  or  lamp  ignition. 

The  speediest,  cleanest,  and  also  safest  method  of  doing  many 


IGNITION 


i9i 

things  is  by  electric  agency,  and  stationary  gas  engines  were  designed 
with  electric  ignition  some  time  before  the  days  of  motor-cars,  and, 
as  all  modern  petrol  engines  have  electric  ignition,  it  is  evident  that 
for  once  an  older  system,  having  been  improved,  has  prevailed ;  in 
fact,  one  may  look  upon  tube  ignition 
as  a  temporary  system  adopted  while  the 
one  with  more  defects  yet  greater  pro¬ 
mise  was  brought  into  line  with  new  and 
ever-increasing  requirements. 

Sources  of  Electricity. — To  obtain  a 
spark  for  the  explosion  in  the  cylinder- 
head  we  may  use  (1)  a  primary  battery, 

(2)  a  secondary  battery  or  accumulator, 
or  (3)  a  contrivance  which  is  capable  of 
converting  magnetism  (produced  mecha¬ 
nically)  into  electricity,  which  is  usually 
a  magneto-electric  machine  (commonly 
called  a  magneto)  having  permanent 
field  magnets,  and  seldom,  so  far  as  igni¬ 
tion  purposes  are  concerned,  a  dynamo, 
which  has  electro  or  temporary  magnets. 

Primary  Batteries. — A  primary  bat¬ 
tery  sets  up  a  flow  of  electricity  within 
itself  by  reason  of  the  chemical  change 
which  takes  place.  A  battery  is  a  number 
of  cells.  The  simplest  cell  is  merely  a 
clean  piece  of  zinc,  and  one  of  copper  or  other  dissimilar  metal, 
called  the  eloctrodes,  plates  or  elements,  immersed  in  a  pot  of  weak, 
generally  sulphuric,  acid,  which  is  called  the  electrolyte,  and  joined 
together  by  a  piece  of  conductive  material  at  their  dry  ends  or  poles. 
Whenever  the  two  poles  are  bridged  over,  or  in  other  words  the 
circuit  closed  by  a  conductor,  usually  a  copper  wire,  the  flow  of  electri¬ 
city  is  set  up,  and  it  is  manifested  by  bubbles  being  formed  on  the 
surface  of  the  copper  element.  These  bubbles  consist  of  hydrogen 
gas  formed  from  the  corrosive  action  of  the  acid  on  the  zinc  element. 
A  primary  cell,  in  order  to  work  economically,  must  have  these  gas 
bubbles  destroyed  as  far  as  possible,  therefore  the  element  on  which 
they  would  be  formed  is  surrounded  by  a  substance  which  usually 


Fig.  30. — A  simple  cell.  A, 
conductor ;  B,  negative  pole ;  C, 
positive  pole ;  D,  negative’plate  ; 
E,  positive  plate ;  F,  electro¬ 
lyte.  The  arrows  indicate  the 
direction  of  the  flow  of  the 
current. 


192 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


converts  the  hydrogen  into  water.  The  Leclanche  cell  has  a  zinc 
element  and  a  carbon  element,  the  latter  being  placed  in  a  porous 
pot  in  order  to  keep  the  contents  together,  packed  round  with 
crushed  carbon,  and  manganese  dioxide,  and  then,  together  with  the 
zinc  element,  placed  in  a  glass  jar  containing  a  strong  solution  of 
sal-ammoniac  (ammonium  chloride).  Such  an  arrangement  is  a 
wet  battery,  and  only  suitable  for  stationary  work,  but  by  intro¬ 
ducing  plaster  of  Paris,  blotting  paper,  or  other  absorbent  material, 
the  electrolyte  is  stiffened  up  so  as  to  form  a  “  dry  ”  battery,  chloride 
of  zinc  being  added  to  keep  the  paste  moist.  As  gas  is  generated,  a 
vent  must  be  provided  to  allow  of  its  escape. 

The  zinc  element  is  the  positive  one,  and  is  gradually  eaten 
away.  It  does  not  take  the  form  of  a  plate  or  rod  as  in  a  wet  cell,  but 
foims  the  case  of  the  dry  cell  itself.  Here  it  may  be  conveniently 
assumed  the  current  of  electricity  starts,  from  whence  it  travels 
thiough  the  electrolyte  to  the  negative  element,  and  through  it  to 
the  positive  terminal  or  junction  with  the  conductive  wire. 

Accumulators.  Primary  batteries,  by  reason  of  the  chemical 
action  set  up,  become  useless  in  time.  The  accumulator  differs 
fiom  the  primary  type  in  that  the  chemical  change  produced  can 
be  removed,  and  the  original  condition  of  the  plates  restored,  also 
the  elements  are  active  in  themselves  in  a  primary  battery,  and 
require  no  current  to  cause  them  to  develop  electrical  energy  as  in 
the  case  with  accumulators.  In  the  place  of  a  zinc  case  containing 
a  carbon  element,  we  have  in  one  type  of  accumulator  a  series  of 

lead  plates  cast  in  the  form  of  grids  or  gratings,  so  that  they  will 
retain  a  paste. 


If  two  lead  plates  are  immersed  in  a  dilute  solution  of  sulphuric 
acid,  and  connected  up  to  a  primary  battery  or  other  generative 
source,  the  lead  plate  by  which  the  current  enters  will  be  turned 
biown,  and  is  called  the  anode.  The  brown  colour  is  owing  to  the 
oxygen  gas  forming  on  the  surface  of  the  lead  plate,  and  combining 
with  it,  resulting  in  lead  peroxide.  Hydrogen  gas  is  liberated  at  the 
other  plate,  or  cathode,  but  no  chemical  action  takes  place.  The 
plates  are  now  “  formed,”  and  ready  to  liberate  electrical  energy. 
A  quicker  process,  however,  is  to  prepare  the  lead  plates  by  casting 
them  in  such  a  foim  (generally  a  grid)  that  they  may  easily  receive 
and  retain  a  paste.  The  anode  or  positive  plate  is  given  a  coating 


IGNITION 


i93 


of  red  lead  paste,  treated  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  so  that  lead 
sulphate  is  formed,  while  the  cathode  or  negative  plate  receives  a 
paste  of  litharge,  also  treated  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  so  that  lead 
sulphate  is  again  formed.  On  connecting  up  with  an  electric  cur¬ 
rent,  as  mentioned  with  the  plain  lead  plate  above,  the  positive  plate 
is  reduced  to  brown  lead  peroxide,  while  metallic  lead  results  at  the 
negative  plate,  which  is,  of  course,  slate  grey  in  colour. 

A  pasted  plate  is  known  as  the  Faure  type,  and  one  that  is  not 
so  treated  is  called  a  Plante  plate.  Most  accumulators  are  of  the 
Faure  pattern,  some  have  a  Plante  type  anode,  and  a  Faure  type 
cathode.  The  efficiency  of  an  accumulator  depends  largely  on  the 
degree  of  accessibility  the  acid  has  to  the  surface  of  the  plates. 
Therefore  the  more  porous  they  are  the  better,  and  the  various 
types  of  castings  used  are  designed,  apart  from  paste-retaining 
properties,  with  the  object  of  giving  as  much  surface  to  the  electro¬ 
lyte  as  possible. 

When  an  accumulator  has  given  out  its  energy,  both  the  negative 
and  positive  plates  return  to  their  lead  sulphate  condition  while  the 
acid  solution  becomes  weaker.  On  re-charging  the  cells  the  sul- 
phating  disappears,  and  the  acid  solution  returns  to  its  former 
density. 

The  negative  and  positive  grids  are  arranged  alternately  in  each 
cell  of  an  accumulator.  Each  cell  is  insulated  from  its  neighbour, 
that  is,  it  is  separated  by  material  which  will  not  conduct  electricity. 

Amperes,  Volts,  and  Watts .  —  The  positive  grids  are  all  con¬ 
nected  together,  likewise  the  negative  ones.  Whenever  electricity 
is  set  up  in  a  cell,  it  is  present  in  a  certain  quantity,  or  can  flow  at 
a  certain  rate,  and  this  is  called  the  amperage. 

The  pressure  at  which  a  current  of  electricity  is  delivered  is 
called  the  voltage.  The  units  of  these  are  expressed  in  amperes 
and  volts  respectively,  while  their  product,  that  is  the  power 
furnished  by  a  current  of  certain  amperage  flowing  at  a  certain 
voltage,  is  so  many  watts. 

Series  and  Parallel  Coupling. — If  we  have  two  cells  in  a  battery 
and  join  the  two  positive  poles  together  and  similarly  treat  the 
negative  ones,  we  shall  be  coupling  up  the  cells  in  parallel,  while  if 
the  negative  terminal  of  one  is  connected  to  the  positive  of  the 
next  this  will  be  coupling  up  in  series.  The  first  operation  will 


o 


194 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


increase  the  amperage,  that  is  electric  energy  will  be  given  out  for 
a  longer  period  but  at  a  lessened  pressure,  while  the  second  method 


Fig.  31. — Cell  coupling.  A,  cells  coupled  up  in  series  ;  B,  in  parallel ;  C,  in  series- 

parallel  or  multiple. 


will  increase  the  voltage  or  pressure,  but  at  the  expense  of  the  am¬ 
perage.  In  each  case,  providing  we  have  similar  batteries,  the 
number  of  watts  will  be  identical. 


IGNITION 


l9S 


Supposing  each  of  the  two  cells  is  of  4-volt  capacity,  and  has  a 
discharge  rate  of  3  amperes.  Coupling  them  up  in  parallel  will 
give  6  amperes  at  4  volts,  while  in  series  it  will  give  8  volts  at 
3  amperes,  in  each  case  showing  a  product  of  24  watts.  In  other 
words,  the  voltage  of  any  amount  of  similar  cells  is  the  same  as  the 
battery  voltage  should  they  be  coupled  in  parallel,  the  amperage  of 
each  cell  being  added  together,  while  a  connection  in  series  has  the 
effect  of  adding  together  the  voltage,  this  total  divided  into  the 
number  of  watts  giving  the  amperage.  The  voltage  per  cell  depends 
on  how  and  of  what  it  is  made.  Some  primary  cells  are  less  efficient 
than  others  according  to  the  material  used  for  the  elements,  and 
the  electrolyte,  while  primary  batteries  as  a  whole  give  out  less 
voltage  than  accumulators.  As  amperage  may  be  conveniently 
regarded  as  quantity,  it  will  be  readily  understood  that  it  depends 
on  the  size  of  the  plates. 

The  rate  of  discharge  in  an  accumulator  is  described  as  so  many 
ampere-hours.  Thus  twenty  ampere-hours  means  that  it  will  give 
out  one  ampere  of  electricity  for  twenty  hours,  or  five  amperes  for 
four  hours,  and  so  on. 

The  Construction  of  an  Accumulator . — A  cell  of  an  accumulator 
consisting  of  one  negative  and  one  positive  grid  will  give  out  roughly 
two  volts.  To  obtain  four  volts,  a  pressure 
usually  demanded  in  electric  ignition  appa¬ 
ratus,  we  shall  therefore  require  two  cells 
coupled  in  series.  A  four-volt  accumulator 
consists  of  a  celluloid  case,  divided  in  the 
centre  by  a  partition  of  similar  material. 

This  is  recognized  as  the  best  substance  for 
motor  car  work,  although  glass  or  gutta¬ 
percha,  or,  in  fact,  any  acid-resisting  material 
which  is  also  a  non-conductor  of  electricity, 
which  can  be  made  into  a  case,  would  do  in 
other  instances.  Celluloid,  however,  is  light,  transparent,  and  insus¬ 
ceptible  to  vibration.  The  grids  are  furnished  with  lugs  so  that  they 
may  rest  on  the  edge  of  the  case,  while  they  are  made  somehow 
shorter  than  the  inside  depth  of  the  case,  so  that  any  paste  falling 
out  of  the  grids  may  not  cause  short-circuiting,  that  is,  electrical 
communication  between  two  plates  of  unlike  polarity.  Each  grid  is 


Fig.  32. — In  the  elec¬ 
trical  diagrams  given  in 
this  chapter  when  two 
wires  are  crossed  in  this 
way  it  indicates  that 
there  is  no  direct  con¬ 
nection  between  them. 


196 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


separated  from  the  next  one  by  a  perforated  screen  of  insulating 
material,  and  also  kept  in  position  by  intervening  ebonite  pegs,  so 
as  to  further  guard  against  short-circuiting,  but  not  to  prevent  a 
free  passage  of  the  electrolyte. 

It  has  been  found  also,  that  it  is  advantageous  to  use  an  extra 
negative  plate,  which  is  placed  on  the  outside  of  a  set,  so  that  each 
positive  plate  has  a  negative  one  on  each  side  of  it.  • 

The  plates  having  been  arranged  in  the  accumulator  case,  alter¬ 
nately  negative  and  positive,  each  set  of  negative  and  positive  plates 
connected  together,  leaving  a  free  end  of  each  kind  at  either  end,  an 
electrolyte  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  is  added  so  as  to  cover  the  plates, 
but  not  to  fill  the  case.  A  wooden  lid  covered  with  marine  glue, 
provided  with  slots  for  the  passage  of  the  terminals  and  orifices  for 
pouring  in  the  acid,  completes  the  accumulator,  which  will  be 
probably  inserted  as  a  whole  in  a  neat  mahogany  case. 

The  Electric  Circuit. — An  accumulator  gives  out  electric  energy 
so  long  as  a  closed  circuit  is  maintained  between  the  negative  and 

positive  terminals.  Such  a  cir¬ 
cuit  may  consist  of  a  copper 
wire  of  any  length  connecting 
the  two  terminals,  or  the  wire 
may  be  attached  to  any  other 
conductive  substance  such  as 
iron  or  steel,  and  so  long  as  the 
other  end  of  the  wire  is  also 
connected  to  the  intervening 
substance  the  current  will  flow. 
The  earth  is  a  conductor,  and 
for  that  reason  part  of  an  elec¬ 
tric  circuit  may  be  established 
by  sinking  the  wires  in  damp 
ground,  but  in  motor-car  work 
this  property  is  not  made  use  of,  as  we  have  to  deal  with  a  moving 
vehicle,  but  the  term  “  earthed  ”  is  used  to  signify  a  connection 
made  to  the  main  structure,  such  as  the  engine  or  frame. 

Should  an  insulating  or  non-conductive  substance  be  inserted  in 
the  path  of  an  electric  current,  it  will  be  arrested.  This  property  is 
made  use  of  in  many  ways  in  motor-car  ignition.  With  a  switch 


Fig.  33. — A  pair  of  accumulators  joined 
in  series.  The  negative  plates  are  coupled 
together  in  each  accumulator,  likewise  the 
positive  ones. 


IGNITION 


197 


mounted  on  the  dashboard  the  current  can  be  cut  off  when  not 
required,  or  re-established  when  starting  on  a  journey,  while 
mechanical  devices  driven  from  the  engine  continually  make  and 
break  the  electric  circuit  in  order  that  a  spark  shall  be  made  in  the 
cylinder  at  the  right  moment. 

Although  the  insertion  of  an  insulating  material  breaks  the 
electric  circuit,  yet  if  the  insulation  consists  of  a  small  gap  of  air, 
the  current  will  jump  across  providing  there  is  sufficient  voltage 
present.  This  property  is  made  use  of  to  provide  a  jump  spark 
in  the  various  high-tension  ignition  systems,  while  if  an  electric 
circuit  is  suddenly  broken  by  quickly  dividing  the  path  through 
which  it  is  flowing,  a  spark  will  be  made  at  the  point  of  rupture. 
This  is  the  principle  under  which  low-tension  ignition  works. 
Electric  ignition,  whether  it  depends  on  batteries  for  its  initial 
energy  or  a  magneto,  is  described  as  either  a  high-  or  low-tension 
system,  which,  however,  is  more  than  a  difference  in  voltage,  as  the 
apparatus  used  with  either  system  is  quite  distinct  in  important 
particulars.  Chiefly  the  low-tension  system  has  one  electric  circuit, 
while  the  high-tension  has  a  low-tension  or  primary  circuit  and  a 
high-tension  or  secondary  circuit  as  well.  The  high-tension  system, 
with  battery,  was  used  in  ordinary  gas  engines  by  Lenoir  as  far  back 
as  1860 ;  improved  high-tension  systems,  but  in  conjunction  with  a 
magneto,  are  the  fashion  to-day. 

The  low-tension  system  is  much  simpler  in  several  respects,  and 
when  used  now  it  is  generally  coupled  up  to  a  magneto. 

Low -tension  Battery  Ignition . — Low-tension  battery  ignition  will 
be  considered  first.  The  four  or  six  volts  given  out  by  a  battery  are 
quite  inadequate  to  produce  an  electric  current  of  sufficient  intensity 
which  when  broken  shall  produce  a  spark  hot  enough  for  igniting 
purposes,  unless  the  batteries  are  very  large,  so  the  voltage  or 
tension  has  to  be  increased  by  utilizing  the  inductive  properties  of 
electricity. 

The  Inductive  Properties  of  Electricity. — If  a  conducting  wire  be 
coiled  into  the  shape  of  a  spiral,  immediately  contact  is  made  a 
momentary  weaker  and  extra  current  flows  in  the  opposite  direction 
to  the  main  current,  that  is  towards  the  positive  terminal  of  the 
battery,  so  that  the  voltage  of  the  main  current  is  somewhat 
weakened  for  the  very  brief  interval  during  which  the  self-induced 


198 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


current  flows.  Should  the  circuit  be  very  quickly  broken  in  a  coiled 
wire,  immediately  the  break  occurs  a  small  current  is  set  up  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  main  current,  so  increasing  its  voltage. 

It  has  been  found  by  experiment  that  according  to  the  number 
of  coils  given  to  the  wire,  so  the  voltage  is  increased ;  in  fact,  each 
coil  of  wire  may  be  regarded  as  a  small  cell  coupled  to  its  neighbour 
in  series ;  and  following  closely  the  allusion  we  shall  also  find  that 
the  output  in  watts  is  not  increased,  so  that  the  amperage  is  reduced 
accordingly.  Thus,  if  we  have  1000  turns  of  wire  and  the  initial 
voltage  of  the  battery  be  four  volts,  we  shall  have  approximately  as 
the  output  of  our  coil  4000  volts,  and  if  the  amperage  rate  is  eight 
that  will  be  reduced  to  0  =  T25  ampere,  without  allowing  for 
losses  in  transmission. 

A  primary  coil  for  use  in  low-tension  battery  ignition  will  have 
about  2500  turns  of  No.  14  or  16-gauge  copper  cotton  or  silk 
insulated  wire,  wound  on  to  about  a  6-in.  iron  core,  each  layer  of 
wire  as  it  is  wound  on  being  insulated  from  the  next  by  a  coating  of 
wax  or  other  insulating  material.  The  object  of  winding  the  wire 
on  an  iron  core  is  that  we  have  a  centre  which  will,  if  of  soft  or 
ordinary  iron,  be  readily  magnetized  by  the  current  passing  around 
it,  and  by  so  doing,  the  magnetic  field,  or  lines  of  force,  emanating 
from  the  live  wire  will  be  concentrated  towards  the  iron  core  and  so 
increase  the  self-induction  present,  and  consequently  the  voltage 
immediately  when  the  circuit  is  quickly  broken. 

As  the  spark  will  be  produced  at  the  spot  where  the  circuit 
is  broken,  this  must  be  situated  in  the  cylinder,  and  mechanical 
means  are  provided  which  shall  break  the  contact  at  the  right 
moment  to  ensure  an  efficient  explosion.  As  there  is  one  explosion 
to  every  two  complete  turns  of  the  crank  it  will  follow  that  the 
contact-breaking  mechanism  will,  if  connected  to  the  engine,  have 
to  be  mounted  to  act  at  half  the  speed,  and  as  the  intensity  of  the 
spark  is  in  proportion  to  the  suddenness  of  the  break  of  the  circuit, 
some  quickly  responsive  apparatus  is  necessary. 

Low-tension  magneto  ignition  was  at  one  time  very  much  in 
favour,  in  fact  the  famous  Mercedes  car  reached  to  a  great  height 
of  popularity  while  fitted  with  this  system. 

The  Low-tension  Magneto. — A  magneto  consists  of  a  number  of 
hardened  steel  permanent  magnets  formed  in  the  shape  of  the 


IGNITION 


199 


inverted  letter  fl.  A  normal  compound  magnet  is  made  up  of 
three  magnets  placed  side  by  side  so  as  to  form  a  small  tunnel,  and 
secured  to  a  base  plate,  over  which  is  directly  superimposed  a 
second  set  of  three  magnets  screwed  to  the  lower  set.  Inside  the 
tunnel,  at  the  bottom  on  each  side,  are  fixed  the  soft  iron  pole 
pieces,  which  are  curved  on  their  inner  side  so  as  to  give  a  clear 
passage  for  the  revolving  armature,  or  soft  iron  screen,  according 
to  the  principle  used,  such  clearance  being  uniform,  and  very  small, 
in  fact  about  °f  an  inch. 

In  the  same  way  that  the  current  passing  along  a  conducting 
wire  is  not  confined  to  that  wire,  but  passes  into  the  atmosphere 
surrounding,  so  the  magnetic  field  surrounding  the  poles  of  a 
magnet  consists  of  lines  of  force  converging  in  all  directions.  These 
lines  of  force  are  cut  by  the  winding  on  the  armature  when  it 
moves,  thereby  inducing  a  current  of  high  voltage  in  the  wire,  such 
current  being  concentrated  by  the  soft  iron  core  on  which  it  is 
wound. 

The  armature  is  mounted  on  a  spindle  which  runs  in  suitable 
bearings  at  each  end,  one  end  being  devoted  to  driving  the  spindle, 
and  the  other  to  leading  away  the  current  generated  to  the  igniter 
in  the  cylinder  head.  The  armature  commonly  used  is  known  as 
the  Siemens  type,  and  is  of  H  section,  the  sides  of  the  letter  being 
rounded  on  the  outside,  and  the  cross  bar  forming  the  main  bearing 
for  the  winding. 

The  lines  of  force  coming  from  the  poles  of  the  magnets  being 
thickest  at  the  base  between  the  arms  of  the  fl,  it  is  therefore  the 
best  place  for  the  armature,  as  the  voltage  of  electricity  is  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  number  of  lines  of  force  cut.  It  is  also  essential 
that  there  should  be  as  little  space  as  possible  between  the  revolving 
and  stationary  parts,  as  the  strength  of  the  induced  current  is  in 
the  inverse  proportion  to  the  clearance. 

In  a  low-tension  magneto  the  central  portion  of  the  armature 
having  been  wound  longitudinally  with  fairly  coarse  wire,  and  the 
naked  iron  having  first  been  insulated  with  silk  ribbon,  treated  with 
shellac,  one  end  of  the  wire  is  bared  and  fastened  by  a  small 
screw  to  the  body  of  the  armature.  After  the  length  of  wire  has 
been  wound  on,  each  layer  being  insulated  from  the  one  below  it 
by  a  coat  of  shellac,  the  end  is  brought  out  to  the  spindle  on 


200 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


the  current  collecting  side.  This  spindle  has  an  insulated  centre, 
through  which  passes  a  copper  wire.  The  inner  end  of  this  wire  is 
coupled  up  to  the  free  end  of  the  armature  wire.  The  outer  end  of 
the  spindle  wire  is  splayed  out  into  a  small  knob  so  that  it  may 
readily  have  electrical  contact  with  a  similar  projection  mounted  in 
the  end  bearing.  This  second  knob  is  kept  up  to  its  work  by  a 
small  spring,  and  is  in  direct  communication  with  a  terminal  to 
which  is  attached  the  wire  leading  to  the  igniter  in  the  cylinder. 
The  end  of  the  spindle  and  the  end  bearing,  though  in  electrical 
contact  in  the  centre,  where  the  two  knobs  meet,  is  insulated  at 
all  other  points  of  contact,  so  that  all  current  coming  from  the 
armature  wire  passes  only  to  the  contact  of  the  bearing,  and  so 
through  the  terminal  wire  to  the  combustion  chamber.  One 
bearing  being  given  up  to  leading  away  the  induced  current,  the 
other  one  nearest  the  engine  is  devoted  to  driving  the  armature,  or 
if  this  is  of  the  stationary  type,  then  it  transmits  motion  to  the 
screen,  either  revolving  it  completely  or  oscillating  it  backwards  and 
forwards,  according  to  the  pattern  of  magneto  under  considera¬ 
tion.  The  current  is  induced  in  the  winding  of  the  armature, 
by  reason  of  the  revolving  armature  cutting  the  lines  of  force  in 
the  magnetic  field.  The  same  result  is  brought  about  should  the 
armature  remain  stationary  and  the  lines  of  force  be  alternately 
shielded  from  or  exposed  to  the  armature  winding  by  means  of  an 
interposing  screen,  which  being  of  soft  iron  concentrates  the  lines 
of  force  upon  itself. 

It  has  been  showrn  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter  that  an 
engine  running  at  one  thousand  revolutions  per  minute,  requires 
half  as  many  explosions  in  that  time  for  the  working  of  the  piston. 
Taking  a  recently  designed  engine,  one  finds  that  it  has  a  stroke  of 
127  mm.  or  5  ins.,  from  which  it  will  be  readily  calculated  that  the 
piston  travels  2000  x  5  ins.  or  nearly  280  yards  in  a  minute. 

Timing  the  Spark. — Although  electricity  acts  rapidly,  and  it  is 
an  easy  matter  to  produce  sparks  much  quicker  than  the  eye  can 
count,  yet  the  resulting  explosion  develops  much  more  slowly.  If 
the  explosion  were  instantaneous,  it  would  be  quite  correct  to  fire 
the  charge  immediately  the  piston  had  reached  its  highest  point 
in  the  cylinder,  but  if  this  were  done  with  a  high-speed  engine,  the 
result  would  be  that  the  explosion  would  not  be  completed  until  the 


IGNITION 


201 


piston  was  moving  down  the  cylinder  again,  thereby  increasing 
the  area  of  the  combustion  chamber,  giving  the  gas  more  room  to 
expand  naturally  and  gently  before  being  finally  expanded  with 
violence  by  the  electric  spark.  The  combustion  chamber  thereby 
enlarged,  the  force  of  the  resulting  explosion  is  proportionately 
lessened,  in  fact,  “late  ignition”  has  taken  place,  or  the  spark  has 
been  “  retarded.” 

To  get  over  this  difficulty,  it  is  arranged  that  the  electric  spark 
shall  enter  the  combustion  chamber  before  the  piston  reaches  the 
top  of  its  stroke,  but  the  ignition  must  not  be  advanced  too  much, 
otherwise  there  will  be  danger  of  the  full  force  of  the  explosion 
developing  before  the  top  of  the  stroke,  and  so  tending  to  push  the 
piston  back  again.  On  an  average  the  spark  enters  the  combustion 
chamber  when  the  piston  has  about  another  ^  of  an  inch  to  travel 
upwards. 

The  explosion  will  take  place  more  rapidly  if  the  spark  is  hot, 
while  a  powerful  ignition  will  fire  a  wider  range  of  mixtures,  so  that 
a  very  fine  adjustment  of  the  carburettor  is  not  called  for. 

Having  recognized  the  necessity  for  timing  the  ignition,  we 
will  now  consider  the  means  provided  to  fire  the  charge.  With 
the  low-tension  system  it  will  be  remembered  that  use  was  made  of 
the  property  of  an  electric  current  which  is  exhibited  when  that 
current  is  broken.  The  current  from  the  battery  having  been 
intensified  by  traversing  the  primary  induction  coil,  01  the  wiring 
on  the  armature  of  the  magnets  having  been  charged  by  cutting 
magnetic  lines  of  force  proceeding  from  the  magnets,  the  tension 
so  stored  up  is  sufficient  to  produce  a  spark  across  a  small  gap  or 
air  space  in  the  circuit,  the  violence  of  the  spark  being  in  pro¬ 
portion  to  the  pressure  of  the  current  and  the  quickness  of  the 

break. 

The  Low-tension  Igniter. — The  breaking  of  the  circuit  is  done 
by  a  contact  breaker.  It  will  be  better,  however,  to  refer  to  it  as 
an  igniter,  so  that  the  terms  contact  breaker  and  contact  maker  can 
be  reserved  for  their  particular  uses  in  a  high-tension  system.  As 
the  igniter  has  to  act  at  half  the  speed  of  the  engine,  it  is  generally 
found  convenient  to  utilize  the  valve  cam  shaft  for  that  purpose,  or 
a  special  two  to  one  gear  may  be  provided.  Into  the  combustion 
chamber  wall  is  screwed  an  insulated  plug  (not  to  be  confused  with 


202 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


a  high-tension  sparking  plug),  through  the  centre  of  which  passes  a 
copper  wire  carrying  the  current  from  the  generating  source.  This 
has  a  tip  of  platinum  at  the  end,  being  a  substance  which  will  not 
readily  oxidize  under  the  heat  of  the  spark,  and  therefore  keeping 
clean,  and  providing  proper  contact  on  every  occasion.  Close  to  the 
plug  is  also  inserted  into  the  cylinder  wall  a  small  lever  working  on 
a  pivot  provided  at  one  end  with  a  platinum  point.  When  these  two 
points  are  in  contact  the  current  flows  through  the  circuit,  but 
directly  the  lever  is  moved  separating  the  platinum  points  the 
small  distance  necessary,  a  spark  immediately  occurs.  Normally 
the  lever  is  kept  up  to  the  contact  position  by  a  coiled  spring,  and 
is  pushed  out  of  contact  by  a  rod  acting  on  the  end  of  the  lever,  the 
rod  being  raised  by  a  projection  or  cam  mounted  on  a  shaft  driven 
by  the  engine.  After  being  raised,  the  rod  is  brought  down  smartly 
again  by  another  coiled  spring,  which  has  been  compressed  during 
the  time  the  rod  has  been  pushing  the  platinum  points  apart. 

Instead  of  a  rod  end  pushing  the  end  of  the  lever,  a  small  spring 
hammer  may  be  tripped  up  by  a  suitable  projection,  a  cam  being 
used  as  before  to  impart  motion.  The  spring  used  should  be  strong, 
and  the  moving  parts  light,  so  that  they  are  responsive. 

I  ariable  Low-tension  Ignition . — With  a  low-tension  ignition, 
the  time  of  the  ignition  may  be  varied  by  suitable  mechanism 
acting  on  the  cam,  which  causes  the  points  in  the  cylinder  to  be 
separated  early  or  late  in  the  cycle  of  operations.  Being  directly 
coupled  to  the  engine,  the  number  of  sparks  naturally  increase  with 
the  rate  of  the  crank  shaft,  but  whatever  the  speed,  the  explosions 
still  take  about  the  same  time  to  develop,  therefore  it  is  desirable  to 
allow  the  spark  to  be  made  proportionately  earlier,  so  that  the  full 
force  of  the  explosion  still  develops  at  the  top  of  the  piston  stroke. 

The  Lise  and  Fall  of  Magnetic  Induction. — In  a  low-tension 
magneto  system  advantage  is  taken  of  the  position  of  the  armature 
with  regard  to  that  of  the  poles  of  the  magnets,  and  consequently, 
the  line  of  force,  in  order  to  arrange  the  normal  ignition  point. 
When  the  curved  sides  of  the  armature  are  lying  upright  in  the 
shaped  recesses  of  the  pole  pieces,  the  magnetic  lines  of  force  pass 
straight  through  the  core  of  the  armature.  As  soon  as  the  armature 
commences  to  turn,  the  lines  of  force  are  raised  at  one  end,  pass 
through  the  now  oblique  core,  and  so  out  at  the  lower  end  of  the 


IGNITION 


203 


other  pole  piece,  the  directions  continually  altering  until  the  arma¬ 
ture  is  at  right  angles  to  its  first  position,  when  the  lines  of  force 
now  pass  across  the  curved  ends  of  the  armature  only,  leaving 


B  ‘ _ A 

Fig.  34  —  Diagram  showing  the  path  of  the  current  in  the  high  and  low  tension 
circuits.  A,  low  tension,  or  primary  circuit ;  B,  high  tension,  or  secondary  circuit. 

practically  free  from  magnetic  induction  the  winding  on  the  core, 
so  that  no  electric  current  is  given  out.  The  magnetic  induction  is 
greatest  just  when  the  circuit  is  being  broken,  that  is,  just  when 


204 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


the  edge  of  the  armature  has  left  the  edge  of  the  pole  piece,  and, 
generally  speaking,  when  these  points  are  separated  Tl0-  in.,  it  is 
arranged  that  the  striker  or  lifter,  actuated  by  the  cam  shaft, 
separates  the  platinum  points  in  the  cylinder.  The  contact  may 
be  broken  in  the  cylinder  by  a  special  magnetic  plug,  as  well  as  the 
mechanical  system  already  described. 

So  far  we  have  only  taken  into  account  the  firing  of  one  cylinder. 
Two,  three,  four,  and  six  cylinders  are  commonly  in  use,  especially 
the  two  last  numbers.  In  a  multi-cylinder  engine  all  the  plugs  are 
connected  together,  while  each  lever  or  striker  of  the  igniters  has  a 
separate  cam  on  the  same  cam  shaft.  If  we  look  at  this  cam  shaft 
from  the  end,  say,  in  a  four-cylinder  engine,  at  the  various  pro¬ 
jections  of  the  cams,  it  will  be  noticed  that  they  are  arranged 
equi-distant  as  around  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  while  with 
a  six- cylinder  engine  we  should  produce  a  hexagon  if  the  centres  of 
the  cam  projections  were  joined.  With  a  magneto,  be  it  low  or 
high  tension,  the  armature  is  geared  to  the  engine,  according 
to  the  number  of  explosions  required  per  crank  shaft  revolution. 
This  equal  spacing  around  a  circle  is  also  utilized  in  high-tension 
devices  when  the  current  has  to  be  distributed  to  the  various 
cylinders  or  to  the  coils,  when  more  than  one  is  used. 

The  Low-tension  Circuit. — The  electric  circuit  of  a  low-tension 
ignition  system  is  as  follows  :  Having  left  the  magneto  or  battery 
and  primary  coil,  it  passes  to  the  insulated  plug  in  the  cylinder 
head,  across  to  the  striker,  and  through  the  metal  of  the  engine 
case ;  then,  if  a  magneto  is  the  generative  source,  the  current  finds 
its  way  back  to  the  armature  winding  at  once  through  the  engine 
bearings,  which  carry  the  shafts  and  wheels  driving  the  armature, 
but  if  a  battery,  the  current  goes  to  the  frame  or  engine,  where  it 
finds  the  earthed  wire  of  the  battery,  and  so  back  to  the  negative 
terminal. 

High-tension  Ignition. — The  high-tension  system  is  that  generally 
adopted  on  cars  of  to-day,  and  usually  a  magneto  is  the  generator, 
while  on  many  cars  a  high-tension  battery  system  is  also  employed 
as  a  duplicate,  or  the  two  varieties  may  be  independent  for  only  a 
portion  of  the  secondary  circuit. 

In  a  high-tension  system  we  have  to  provide  a  low-tension  or 
primary  circuit  as  well  as  a  secondary  one  of  higher  tension.  The 


IGNITION 


primary  one,  when  broken  suddenly,  promotes  the  si 
self-induction,  the  secondary  being  wound  over  the  primal 
much  greater  length,  both  circuits  here  being  in  coils.  The  sS 
circuit  being  connected  to  the  sparking  plug,  the  explosions 
controlled  according  to  when  the  primary  circuit  is  broken. 

This  is  carried  out  by  a  contact-breaker,  driven  from  the  engine, 
which  has  a  revolving  cam  which  separates  at  the  proper  intervals 
two  platinum  points,  both  being  connected  in  the  primary  circuit. 

One  of  the  essential  things  to  remember,  with  any  type  of 
ignition,  be  it  low  or  high  tension,  is  that  the  primary  circuit  has  to 
be  broken  suddenly  to  produce  the  necessary  spark.  In  low-tension 
ignition  it  is  broken  in  the  cylinder  direct ;  in  high-tension  ignition 
it  is  still  broken  in  the  low-tension  or  primary  winding,  only  the 
break  is  used  to  induce  a  current  in  the  secondary  circuit  and  force 
a  spark  across  the  small  resisting  air  gap  between  the  sparking 
plug  points,  while  the  spark  which  is  formed  by  the  breaking  of 
the  primary  circuit  is  absorbed  until  the  circuit  is  made  again  by  a 
contrivance  called  a  “  condenser,”  which  is  a  shunt  in  the  primary 


circuit,  and  is  a  siding,  or  rather  a  loop-line,  connected  at  each  end 
with  the  main  line  of  the  primary  circuit. 

Non-trembler  Coils. — Coils  which  are  used  to  generate  a  secondary 


current  may  be  (1)  plain  or  non-trembler  coils,  or  (2)  trembler  coils. 
The  former  consists  of  a  soft  iron  core  made  of  a  tight  bundle  of 
wires,  on  which  is  wound  a  few  layers  of  thick  wire,  forming  the 
primary  winding,  over  which  is  superimposed  a  far  greater  number 
of  layers  of  fine  wire,  forming  the  secondary  winding.  The  first 
layer  of  wire  is  insulated  from  the  core,  each  coil  from  the  next,  and 
the  primary  from  the  secondary  winding.  One  end  of  the  primary 
winding  is  connected  to  the  positive  terminal  of  the  battery,  while 
the  other  end  is  connected  to  the  contact  breaker,  which  is  con¬ 
nected  to  earth.  The  circuit  is  then  taken  up  by  the  earthed  wire 
of  the  battery,  which  leads  to  its  negative  terminal. 

Contact  breakers  require  platinum  points,  which  from  time  to 
time  require  attention,  to  preserve  their  proper  contact. 

Trembler  Coils— With  a  trembler  coil  the  circuit  breaking  is 
transferred  to  a  contrivance  called  a  “  trembler,”  working  on  the 
end  of  the  coil  core,  while  the  engine,  instead  of  driving  a  contact 
breaker,  as  with  a  plain  coil,  drives  a  contact  maker. 


OTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


makers  are,  broadly  speaking,  of  the  wipe  type,  in  which 
conducting  material  bears  against  metal  segments  let  in 
Tar  intervals  into  an  insulated  revolving  disc.  These  two 
^s  may  be  fixed  so  as  to  be  slightly  apart  nominally,  being 
brought  into  contact  by  a  cam  or  similar  tripping  device  working  a 
lever  which  has  one  of  the  points  connected  to  it. 

A  trembler  coil  is  the  type  generally  adopted  with  accumulator 


ignition.  When  the  primary  current  passes  round  the  core  of  the 
coil,  the  core  is  magnetized.  The  magnetized  core  attracts  to  it  a 
piece  of  soft  iron  attached  to  the  under  side  of  the  trembler  blade, 
drawing  it  down  and  at  the  same  time  separating  a  pair  of  platinum 
points,  thereby  breaking  the  primary  circuit,  so  that  the  current  is 
induced  in  the  secondary  circuit  and  a  spark  jumps  across  the 
points  of  the  sparking  plug.  The  trembler  blade,  however,  only 


IGNITION 


207 


touches  but  momentarily  the  end  of  the  magnetized  core,  for  the 
platinum  points  of  the  trembler,  which  are  part  of  the  primary 
circuit,  being  separated,  the  circuit  is  broken,  and  consequently  no 
_ 'primary  current  flows  in  the  coil,  and  therefore  the  magnetization 
is  arrested,  so  that  the  trembler  blade  (which  is  practically  a  plate 
spring)  is  almost  immediately  released,  only  to  come  again  in 


Fig.  36. — Wiring  diagram  of  a  four-cylinder  engine  with  high-tension  magneto. 


contact  with  the  other  platinum  point,  making  the  primary  circuit 
again  and  drawing  the  trembler  blade  down  once  more.  This 
repetition  of  magnetic  attraction  and  electric  circuit  making  and 
breaking  is  kept  up  at  a  high  speed,  while  the  contact  is  being 
made  by  the  engine -driven  device,  causing  a  stream  of  sparks  in  the 
combustion  chamber. 

The  Condenser.— A  condenser  is  used  to  absorb  the  current 
when  it  is  broken  in  the  primary  circuit,  as  with  a  plain  coil,  the 
connection  being  made  to  each  side  of  the  trembler  points  instead 


2o8  MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 

of  a  similar  arrangement  between  the  points  of  the  engine  contact 
breaker. 

A  condenser  consists  of  a  number  of  alternative  sheets  of  tinfoil 
and  waxed  paper,  or  other  substances  which  are  respectively  of 
insulating  and  non-insulating  material,  and  can  be  at  the  same 
time  prepared  in  very  thin  sheets  free  from  holes.  From  the 
electrical  point  of  view,  any  similar  arrangement  of  two  conducting 
bodies  separated  by  an  insulator  is  a  condenser.  The  Leyden  jar  is 
a  familiar  instance  in  which  glass  forms  the  insulator  or  dielectric, 
and  this  apparatus  forms  an  essential  part  of  the  Lodge  ignition. 

A  condenser  is  necessary  in  all  high-tension  systems,  and,  where 
no  separate  coil  is  used,  as  in  many  magneto  installations,  it  will  be 
found  lying  near  the  contact  breaker  or  primary  winding  on  the 
armature. 

The  low-tension  system  requires  special  designing  of  the  general 
engine  arrangement,  but  the  high-tension  ignition  merely  requires  a 
hole  in  the  cylinder  head  for  the  sparking  plug,  although  it  makes 
a  more  compact  job  in  many  cases  if  a  special  shelf  is  provided  for 
the  magneto. 

High-tension  Magneto  Ignition.  —  The  high-tension  magneto 
embodies  within  itself  not  only  both  primary  and  secondary  wind¬ 
ings,  contact  breaker  and  high-tension  distributor,  but  there  is  no 
necessity  for  a  coil,  no  recharging  of  accumulators,  or  replacing  of 
dry  cells  required.  It  calls  for  a  larger  initial  outlay,  but  this  is 
more  than  compensated  for  by  its  convenience ;  any  derangement 
of  the  magneto  mechanism  is  very  unusual,  and  any  parts  which 
do  require  periodical  attention  are  easily  accessible  and  adjusted. 
Bearing  in  mind  what  has  been  said  with  regard  to  low-tension 
magnetos  and  high-tension  battery  systems,  it  will  be  a  simple 
matter  to  follow  the  principles  under  which  the  high-tension  magneto 
does  its  work. 

There  is  an  armature  furnished  with  a  primary  winding  as 
before,  which  is  in  connection  with  a  contact  breaker  mounted  just 
in  fiont,  and  insulated  fiom  the  pole  pieces.  Connected  to  each  side 
of  the  contact  breaker  is  a  condenser.  The  secondary  winding  is 
wound  over  the  primary  as  in  a  coil,  and  the  induced  current, 
which  is  set  up  every  time  a  break  is  made  by  the  contact  breaker! 
is  led  to  (if  it  is  a  multi-cylinder  engine)  a  high-tension  distributor, 


IGNITION 


209 


which,  for  the  sake  of  compactness,  is  mounted  directly  over  the 
contact  breaker,  and  in  fact  geared  to  it  by  means  of  toothed  wheels, 
so  that  the  number  of  low-tension  breaks  corresponds  to  the  required 
number  of  high-tension  sparks  for  every  two  revolutions  of  the 
crank  shaft.  The  magneto  is  timed  by  moving  one  portion  of  the 
contact  breaker  so  that  the  contacts  are  broken  earlier  or  later 
with  regard  to  the  crank  shaft  revolutions. 

The  longitudinal  section  of  a  complete  high-tension  magneto 
may  at  first  sight  appear  complex,  but  bearing  in  mind  the  above 
principles  of  its  working,  and  that  the  electric  circuit  if  required 
to  keep  along  a  certain  path  must  always  pass  along  a  road  of 
conducting  material,  and  must  be  prevented  from  straying  when 
passing  by  another  conductive  substance  by  proper  insulation,  and 
that  magnetic  influences  are  unaffected  by  non-magnetic  metals, 
which  at  the  same  time  are  electrically  conductive,  the  examination 
of  any  type  of  magneto  becomes  at  once  much  simplified.  The 
following  is  a  description  of  a  Bosch  high-tension  magneto. 

The  Primary  Circuit  of  a  High-tension  Magneto.  —  The  main 
structure  consists  of  two  sets  of  three  steel  n -shaped  permanent 
magnets,  one  set  placed  over  the  other,  the  upper  one  being  slightly 
shorter.  To  the  inside  at  the  bottom  of  the  lower  and  under  set  of 
magnets  is  screwed  on  each  side  a  pole  shoe,  each  shoe  being 
drilled  underneath  so  that  a  non-magnetic  metal  baseplate  may  be 
screwed  on  from  underneath  to  them.  It  is  usual  to  speak  of  the 
front  of  the  magneto  as  the  side  nearest  the  engine  and  that  which 
is  driven,  while  the  back  is  the  side  from  which  the  current  is  led 
away  to  the  cylinders. 

The  front  end  plate,  which  is  provided  with  a  ball  race  and 
lubricating  arrangements,  and  pierced  for  the  armature  and  spindle, 
is  attached  to  the  magneto  structure  by  long  screws  passing  into  the 
pole  shoes,  and  short  ones  into  the  base  plate.  The  rear  end  plate 
is  similarly  attached  to  the  pole  shoes  and  base  plate,  but  is  twice 
the  height  of  the  front  end  plate,  as  provision  has  to  be  made  not 
only  for  the  armature  spindle  and  contact  breaker  bearing  below, 
but  above  has  to  be  fixed  the  high-tension  distributor.  The  rear 
end  plate  in  itself  has  no  bearing  for  the  armature,  so  a  special 
cover  with  ball  races  and  their  accompanying  lubricating  devices 
is  screwed  to  it. 

p 


210 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


The  next  important  portion  after  the  magneto  and  end  plates  is 
the  armature.  This  has  the  two  windings  coiled  on  in  the  centre 
and  kept  securely  in  position,  so  that  the  windings  shall  not  be 
moved  by  centrifugal  force,  by  a  few  turns  of  wire  running  in  two 
grooves  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  armature  winding. 

The  armature  complete  with  its  two  windings  has  a  portion  of 
the  spindle  left  bare  and  a  gear  wheel  is  keyed  on  to  it  over  the 
front  end,  so  that  it  can  be  driven  from  the  engine.  If  a  single¬ 
cylinder  engine  was  under  consideration,  this  pinion  would  be  so 
geared  that  the  armature  would  be  driven  at  cam  shaft,  or  half 
the  crank  shaft  speed,  one  maximum  armature  position  being 
wasted ;  for  twin-cylinder  engines  with  cranks  set  at  180°,  it  would 
be  the  same ;  for  two-cylinder  engines  with  cranks  at  180°,  crank 
shaft  speed ;  with  a  three-cylinder  motor,  the  armature  is  run  at 
three-quarters  crank  shaft  speed;  with  a  four-cylinder,  same  as 
crank  shaft  speed ;  and  for  a  six  cylinder  it  must  be  run  at  one  and 
a  half  times  the  speed  of  the  crank  shaft.  To  sum  up,  two  igniting 
sparks  are  available  for  each  complete  revolution  of  the  armature, 
and  unless  we  are  dealing  with  a  special  type  of  engine  the  speed 
necessary  can  be  directly  calculated  from  the  number  of  cylinders. 
Thus  in  a  six-cylinder  engine  there  are  six  explosions  in  two  complete 
revolutions  of  the  crank  shaft,  and  as  there  are  two  sparks  per 
revolution  of  the  armature,  it  naturally  follows  that  the  armature 
must  move  §  X  or  1J  times  as  fast  as  the  crankshaft. 

To  return  to  the  description  of  the  armature.  Next  to  the 
driving  portion  of  the  spindle,  and  nearer  the  centre  of  the 
armature,  is  the  other  portion  of  the  ball  race,  which  engages 
with  the  corresponding  parts  mentioned  with  respect  to  the  front 
end  plate.  Still  working  further  towards  the  centre,  we  find  the 
slip-ring  on  which  the  carbon  brush  collecting  the  high-tension 
current  bears,  then  comes  the  front  armature  disc,  which  is  of  non¬ 
magnetic  material,  and  grooved  or  otherwise  accurately  fitted  to 
one  end  of  the  soft  iron  armature  itself. 

Passing  across  the  windings,  we  next  come  to  the  other  armature 
“  disc,”  which  is  made  rather  in  the  shape  of  a  socket,  the  bottom  of 
which  forms  the  rear  armature  disc,  while  the  space  left  inside  is 
set  apart  for  the  disposal  of  the  condenser,  this  being  a  convenient 
position,  as  the  contact  breaker,  to  which  it  must  be  connected 


IGNITION 


ti  i 


directly  by  at  least  one  wire,  lies  close  to  it.  The  complete  con¬ 
denser  with  its  connections  having  been  placed  in  this  recess,  it  is 
found  that  the  exposed  side  has  a  brass  plate  attached  to  it.  This 
plate  carries  one  end  of  the  primary  winding,  and  it  is  pierced  in 
the  centre,  so  that  a  screw  which  is  long  enough  to  pass  right  through 
the  contact  breaker  and  hold  it  in  position,  may  transmit  the 
current  to  one  platinum  screw  of  the  contact  breaker.  Between 
the  back  of  the  contact  breaker  and  the  brass  plate  is  a  ball  race 
and  pinion,  the  latter  being  the  nearer  to  the  centre  of  the  armature. 
The  ball  race  engages  with  its  corresponding  portion  on  the  back 
end  plate  already  described,  while  the  pinion  is  utilized  to  transmit 
motion  to  the  high-tension  distributor.  As  the  long  screw  which 
holds  the  contact  breaker  passes  right  through  the  centre  of  the 
back  end  of  the  armature  spindle,  it  therefore  passes  also  through 
this  ball  race  and  pinion. 

The  centre  of  the  contact  breaker  is  also  the  centre  of  the 
platinum  screw  block.  This  has  a  long  platinum  screw  running 
through  it.  At  the  point  of  contact  a  shorter  platinum  screw 
touches  it,  this  second  screw  being  fastened  to  a  cranked  lever 
which  as  it  travels  round  it  is  twice  tripped  up  by  fibre  rollers, 
thereby  providing  the  necessary  breaks.  These  two  fibre  rollers  are 
fastened  on  each  side  of  a  circular  flanged  piece  attached  to  the 
back  end  plate,  and  around  the  contact  breaker,  round  which  it  can 
revolve  so  as  to  form  a  timing  device. 

The  Secondary  Circuit. — We  will  now  leave  the  primary  winding 
mechanism,  and  consider  the  path  taken  by  the  secondary  circuit, 
which  is  set  up  when  a  separation  takes  place  at  the  platinum 
points  of  the  contact  breaker.  The  secondary  current  is  conveyed 
to  the  slip  ring  at  the  front  end  of  the  armature  spindle.  From 
here  it  is  conveyed  to  a  carbon  brush,  which  is  held  in  position 
by  being  screwed  into  a  boss  on  a  dust  cover  plate,  which  is 
immediately  above  the  armature.  From  the  top  of  the  brush, 
which  is  insulated  from  the  dust  cover  by  a  suitable  bushing,  it 
proceeds  to  a  bridge  or  small  metal  plate,  having  one  end  turned 
up  at  right  angles.  This  turned-up  end  carries  another  brush 
pointing  at  right  angles  to  the  first  one,  and  towards  the  back  end 
of  the  magneto.  The  end  of  this  horizontal  brush  is  in  contact 
with  the  rotating  piece  of  the  high-tension  distributor,  both  of 


212 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


which,  as  they  carry  a  high-tension  current,  are  heavily  insulated. 
On  the  back  end  of  the  rotating  piece  (just  above  the  contact 
breaker)  is  fixed  at  right  angles  a  third  carbon  brush,  being  the 
only  movable  one.  This  as  it  revolves  comes  in  contact  with  metal 
segments  in  a  fixed  distributor  disc,  the  number  of  segments  being 
arranged  at  regular  intervals  and  in  number  according  to  how 
many  cylinders  there  are  in  the  engine.  From  these  metal  seg¬ 
ments  is  led  away  a  heavy  insulated  high-tension  wire  to  each 
sparking  plug,  the  junction  at  the  magneto  end  being  made  by 
suitable  sockets. 

Over  the  contact  breaker  fits  a  brass  cap,  which  is  kept  in 
position  by  a  small  plate  spring  bearing  upon  it,  the  other  end  of 
which  is  fastened  to  a  triangular  clamp,  which  in  turn  holds  an 
ebonite  cover  over  the  high-tension  distributing  disc. 

The  secondary  circuit  is  as  follows :  Starting  from  one  end  of 
the  primary  winding,  the  other  end  of  which  is  earthed  to  the 
armature,  it  proceeds  to  the  slip-ring,  then  through  three  carbon 
brushes  to  one  of  the  metal  segments  of  the  high-tension  distributor. 
From  this  it  proceeds  to  the  sparking  plug  across  the  points  to 
the  body  of  the  engine,  and  so  finding  its  way  back  to  the  armature, 
as  this  is  in  metallic,  therefore  electrical,  communication  with  the 
cylinder  head. 

The  Safety  Spark  Gap. — The  efficiency  of  almost  any  ignition 
apparatus  depends  in  a  great  measure  on  the  care  taken  of  the 
insulation.  This  is  specially  so  in  the  high-tension  circuit  between 
the  armature  and  the  sparking  plug.  Should  a  cable  carrying 
current  to  a  plug  become  broken  or  disconnected  from  any  cause, 
the  uncontrolled  high-tension  current  might  do  considerable  damage 
to  the  magneto.  To  prevent  this  a  safety-spark  gap  is  arranged 
immediately  after  the  brush  which  bears  upon  the  slip  ring.  The 
current  when  passing  through  this  is  earthed  via  the  armature  dust 
cover  in  which  the  safety  sparking  arrangement  is  secured. 

The  ignition  is  shut  off  when  required  by  an  insulated  wire  being 
attached  to  the  nut  which  holds  down  one  end  of  the  spring  holding 
the  brass  contact  breaker  cover.  These  being  all  of  metal  and  the 
wire  attached  to  a  switch,  this  has  only  to  be  manipulated  to  short 
circuit  the  primary  current  through  the  switch  to  earth. 


CHAPTER  XIX 


THE  COOLING  OF  THE  CYLINDERS 

The  Necessity  for  Cooling . — Some  means  of  cooling  the  cylinder 
walls  is  necessary,  owing  to  the  great  heat  generated  by  the  com¬ 
bustion  continually  going  on  inside,  otherwise  the  walls  would 
soon  become  incandescent,  and  the  charge  of  gas  would  become 
ignited  before  the  proper  time;  also  the  lubricating  oil,  if  heated 
above  600°  F.,  would  become  thin  and  charred  or  carbonized,  so  as 
to  be  useless. 

The  cooling  may  be  effected  by  means  of  a  circulation  of  water, 
which  enters  the  cylinder  jacket  at  the  bottom,  then  rises  to  the 
top,  and  is  conveyed  to  a  radiator,  and  from  thence  back  again 
to  the  bottom  of  the  jacket.  The  whole  of  the  water  soon  becomes 
warm  after  a  short  running  of  the  car ;  it  enters  the  bottom  of 
the  cylinder  jacket  well  below  boiling  point,  and  leaves  the  top 
a  little  below  212°  F.  In  passing  through  the  radiator  a  greater 
portion  of  the  heat  is  dissipated  by  reason  of  the  water-heated  pipes 
coming  in  contact  with  a  large  body  of  air. 

The  circulation  of  water  may  be  natural  (thermo-syphon),  or 
forced  by  pump. 

The  Thermo-syphon  System. — In  the  thermo- syphon  system 
advantage  is  taken  of  the  fact  that  water,  as  it  becomes  heated, 
expands,  and  is  therefore  lighter  than  an  equal  body  of  cold  water, 
consequently  it  rises.  The  system  is  then  arranged  so  that  the 
bottom  of  the  radiator  is  somewhat  high  in  comparison  with  the 
cylinder  jackets.  The  natural  circulation  requires  a  free  flow,  so 
that  pipes  should  be  as  large  (not  less  than  lj-ins.  bore)  and  as 
smooth  as  possible,  and  free  from  sharp  bends.  This  system,  if 
well  designed,  has  the  advantage  of  simplicity,  seeing  that  no  pump 
is  required,  and  that  the  cooling  is  not  dependent  on  the  rate  of 


214 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


movement  of  the  crank  shaft.  More  water,  however,  is  required, 
and  the  system  is,  on  the  whole,  slightly  heavier  than  the  forced 
circulation. 

The  Pumped  Circulation . — With  the  pumped  water  circulation, 
a  pump  is  situated  near  the  lowest  and  coolest  part  of  the  system,  the 


Fig.  37. — Cooling  arrangement  of  cylinders  (natural  circulation).  A,  radiator 
cap  and  filler ;  B,  overflow  pipe ;  C,  radiator ;  D,  bracket  for  bearing  on  chassis ; 
E,  flange  for  bonnet ;  F,  hose  connections  ;  G,  drain  cock ;  H,  crank  case  ;  I,  return 
pipe  to  radiator  (heated  water)  ;  J,  pipe  from  radiator  to  jackets  (cooled  water)  ; 
K,  cylinders ;  L,  water  jackets  of  cylinders.  The  arrows  indicate  the  direction  of 
the  flow  of  the  water. 


whole  radiator  can  be  lower  in  respect  of  the  cylinder  jackets,  and 
the  cooler  water  enters  at  the  bottom  of  the  jackets,  as  with  the 
natural  circulation. 

The  pump  used  may  be  of  the  centrifugal  or  positive  throw 
type,  and  will  be  revolved  by  means  of  a  small  shaft  and  pinion, 


THE  COOLING  OF  THE  CYLINDERS 


215 


geared  to  the  pinion  at  the  end  of  the  crank  shaft.  It  was  only  in 
the  older  makes  of  cars  that  the  pump  was  friction  driven  off  the 
flywheel.  A  centrifugal  pump  consists  of  an  arrangement  of 
curved  blades,  usually  six  in  number,  called  an  impeller,  rotating 
from  a  centre  mounted  in  a  closed  chamber.  The  water  is  caught 
up  by  the  blades  as  they  revolve  (usually  1^  times  the  engine 
speed)  and  forced  out  into  the  discharge  pipe.  The  pump  should 
have  ample  wearing  surfaces,  so  as  to  resist  wear  and  prevent 
leakage.  With  a  positive-throw  pump  the  water  is  forced  in 
definite  quantities  per  revolution,  either  by  means  of  a  spring- 
mounted  eccentric,  or  intermeshing  gear  wheels.  In  the  eccentric 
type  a  disc  is  thrown  against  the  inside  of  the  pump  casing  as  it 
revolves,  so  forcing  the  water  out,  while  with  the  gear  type  each 
tooth  acts  as  a  tiny  bucket. 

The  piping  used  with  the  water  circulation  is  usually  of  copper, 
joined  up  by  means  of  rubber  hose,  so  that  the  unions  are  elastic 
and  will  withstand  vibration.  A  drain  cock  should  always  be 
provided  at  the  lowest  point  of  the  system,  so  that  the  water  may 
be  easily  emptied  when  required  to  clean  out  the  piping,  or  should 
the  car  be  left  in  a  cold  place  where  the  water  is  liable  to  freeze. 

The  Radiator—  Perhaps  the  most  delicate  part  of  a  motor  car  is 
the  radiator.  The  ideal  sought  after  is  a  maximum  of  surface 
exposed  to  the  air,  combined  with  a  minimum  of  water  contained, 
compactness,  and  light  weight.  The  older  pattern  of  radiators 
consisted  simply  of  a  long  water  pipe  bent  into  a  coil,  and  sur¬ 
rounded  by  gills,  so  as  to  increase  the  surface  with  which  the  air 
might  come  in  contact.  This  pattern  was  heavy  and  bulky  in 
proportion  to  the  service  rendered,  and  when  disposed  on  either 
side  of  the  engine  two  sets  of  piping  were  necessary. 

Improved  types  of  gilled  radiators  are  now  made,  but  the  piping 
is  smaller,  and  the  system  of  increasing  the  surface  by  means  of 
gills  is  more  effective.  This  style  is  lighter,  less  expensive,  and 
slightly  less  effective  than  the  type  next  described. 

The  popular  type  of  to-day  is  the  honeycomb  radiator,  in  which 
the  water  passes  between  a  large  number  of  short  pipes  or  tubes  of 
hexagonal,  round,  or  square  section.  Some  three  or  four  thousand 
of  these  small  pipes  are  arranged  in  a  suitable  frame  corresponding 
to  the  design  of  radiator,  and  spaced  by  means  of  wires,  the  gauge 


2l6 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


of  wire  deciding  the  water  spaces.  After  assembling,  the  whole  is 
pickled  in  acid,  and  then  dipped,  front  and  back,  into  a  bath  of 
special  solder,  thereby  plugging  up  the  space  between  the  pipes. 
The  honeycomb  is  mounted  in  a  metal  frame  for  attachment, 
generally  between  the  side  members  of  the  chassis,  and  to  the  top  is 
connected  a  small  header  tank  and  a  similar  one  below,  to  which 
the  inlet  and  outlet  water  pipes  are  attached  securely  by  the  usual 
hose  connections. 

The  tubes  may  also  be  separated  by  being  swaged  or  slightly 
enlarged  in  section  at  each  end,  thereby  leaving  the  necessary 
water  spaces  in  between. 

The  large  number  of  soldered  joints  render  this  type  of  radiator 
somewhat  delicate,  and  it  should  be  mounted  on  rubber  or  felt  pads, 
and,  if  possible,  some  slightly  oscillating  form  of  mounting,  so  that 
it  may  give  with  any  whip  of  the  frame.  The  radiator  is  now  often 
mounted  on  the  dashboard,  where  it  is  out  of  the  way  of  possible 
collisions,  does  not  influence  the  size  of  bonnet  required,  and 
allows  of  a  more  accessible  engine.  The  dashboard  position  allows 
of  a  higher  radiator,  which,  as  pointed  out,  is  desirable  with  a 
natural  circulation. 

The  Fan . — A  fan  is  usually  adopted  to  suck  the  air  through  the 
radiator.  This  is  mounted  behind  the  radiator,  preferably  on  the 
cylinder  casting,  and  driven  by  a  belt  from  a  small  pulley  worked 
from  the  crank  shaft.  The  fan  should  be  mounted  eccentrically,  or 
by  other  means,  so  that  the  slack  of  the  belt  may  be  easily  rectified. 

When  the  radiator  is  on  the  dashboard,  the  fan  is  usually  incor¬ 
porated  in  the  flywheel,  and  the  bonnet  and  under  shield  made  com¬ 
paratively  airtight. 

Air  Cooling. — The  simplest  form  of  cooling  is  by  direct  contact 
with  the  air,  the  cylinder  heads  being  provided  with  gills  or  flanges, 
as  used  with  success  on  cycle  engines.  This  system  has  been 
experimented  with  more  largely  in  America  than  in  Great  Britain. 
The  difficulty  is  to  get  the  stream  of  air  to  circulate  continually 
past  the  heated  surfaces,  and  this  has  been  assisted  by  means 
of  various  mechanical  devices. 

This  system  is  worthy  of  more  interest  than  has  been  meted  out 
to  it,  as  there  is  considerably  less  complication  and  weight ;  freezing 
is  impossible,  but,  like  other  things  about  cars,  it  is  not  fashionable. 


THE  COOLING  OF  THE  CYLINDERS 


217 


Effective  air  cooling  would  seem  to  require  the  isolation  of  the 
valves  from  the  cylinder  casting,  so  that  the  air  could  circulate  all 
round  them.  The  piston-valve  engine  is  a  type  which  assists  this 
object.  As  with  water  circulation,  the  air  should  be  let  in  at  the 
bottom  of  the  jacket,  if  one  is  provided,  and  allowed  to  rise  to  the 
top. 

The  Water  Used. — The  water  used  with  a  cooling  system  must 
be  as  soft  as  possible,  and  free  from  visible  sediment,  so  as  to  keep 
the  piping,  especially  in  the  radiator,  clean  and  free  from  blockage. 
Core  sand  may  work  into  the  water  from  the  cylinder  jacket  casting, 
and  overheating  has  to  be  avoided  by  keeping  the  front  of  the 
radiator  clean,  therefore  it  is  often  a  good  plan  to  protect  it  with 
a  small  mud-shield.  This  question  suggests  a  further  advantage 
of  the  dashboard  radiator. 


CHAPTER  XX 


TRA  NS  MISS  ION 

The  Object  of  the  Flywheel . — The  internal-combustion  engine 
develops  useful  power  only  at  a  comparatively  high  speed,  therefore 
the  crank  shaft  has  to  be  coupled  to  suitable  gearing,  so  that  its 
rotative  speed  may  be  utilized  under  all  conditions  of  the  car’s 
work.  The  impulses  given  to  the  crank  shaft  by  the  descending 
pistons  increase  in  smoothness  according  to  the  number  of  impulses 
taking  place  during  one  revolution.  Although  the  pistons  may  be 
balanced  exactly  as  regards  weight,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to 
ensure  smooth  running  of  the  engine,  that  a  flywheel  shall  be  pro¬ 
vided,  which  acts  as  a  reservoir  of  energy  and  creates,  as  near  as 
possible,  an  unvarying  turning  movement  on  the  crank  shaft  instead 
of  a  series  of  jerks.  The  flywheel  is  also  used  as  the  female  portion 
of  the  clutch,  which  is  described  later  on. 

The  flywheel  has  more  work  to  do  the  less  cylinders  there  are, 
and  in  a  single-cylinder  engine  it  will  have  to  provide  the  momentum 
to  carry  the  crank  shaft  round  one  and  a  half  times  in  every  tw7o 
revolutions,  or  during  three  out  of  the  four  operations  of  the  Otto 
cycle.  In  a  four-cylinder  engine  there  is  an  explosion  every  half¬ 
turn,  so  that  its  function  is  of  less  importance,  and,  for  that  reason, 
the  flywheel  could  be  made  lighter  in  a  multi-cylinder  engine ;  but 
it  must  be  of  sufficient  diameter  and  surface  to  accommodate  the 
male  portion  of  a  cone  clutch  or  other  variety  used,  and  allowance 
is  made  for  misfiring. 

The  size  of  the  single-cylinder  split  flywheel  governs  the  dimen¬ 
sions  of  the  crank  case  in  which  it  is  contained,  and  it  has  to  be 
kept  within  reasonable  limits  in  both  single-  and  multi-cylinder  cars, 
as  a  large  flywheel  means  weight  and  vibration  when  the  car  is 
standing. 


TRANSMISSION 


219 


The  Clutch  in  Driving  and  Gear  Changing. — The  clutch  provides 
a  convenient  method  of  disconnecting  the  engine  at  will,  so  that  the 
car  may  be  stopped  in  traffic  or  for  other  short  periods  without 
arresting  the  engine.  It  is  a  necessity  in  driving  as  the  gear 
changing  can  only  be  undertaken  after  de-clutching,  and  it  allows 
the  high  rotative  speed  of  the  crank  shaft  to  be  gradually  trans¬ 
mitted  to  the  driving  gear,  so  as  to  minimize  the  shock  of  coupling 
up. 

The  frictional  surfaces  of  the  clutch  are  normally  in  contact, 
and  have  to  be  separated  when  required  by  the  depression  or  push¬ 
ing  of  the  clutch  pedal,  so  that  this  pedal  may  be  considered  as 
having  a  negative  action,  an  important  difference  between  it  and  the 
brake  and  accelerator  pedals. 

The  Gears  in  Neutral  and  their  Ratio. — The  male  portion  of 
the  clutch  is  always  in  positive  connection  with  one  or  both  shafts 
in  the  gear  box,  so  that  when  the  engine  is  running  idly,  and  the 
car  is  stationary,  movement  is  taking  place  in  the  gear  box,  a  fact 
which  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  on  the  novice.  The  car 
under  these  conditions  has  the  gear  lever  in  the  neutral  notch,  and 
must  on  no  account  be  moved  until  the  clutch  pedal  has  been  de¬ 
pressed  and  separated  the  two  portions  of  the  clutch.  In  some  cars 
this  source  of  danger  has  been  fully  recognized,  and  by  means  of 
ingenious  mechanism  it  is  impossible  to  move  the  gear  lever  with¬ 
out  first  de-clutching.  Various  ratios  of  gearing  are  provided  so 
that  the  engine  will  be  able  to  maintain  the  same  tractive  effort 
under  all  conditions.  If  it  is  going  uphill  a  small  wheel  on  the 
primary  shaft  of  the  gear  box  intermeshing  with  a  comparatively 
much  larger  one  on  the  secondary  shaft  will  allow  the  same 
amount  of  twisting  force  or  torque  to  be  transmitted  to  the  road 
wheels  as  when  there  is  less  difference  in  the  sizes  of  the  gear 
wheels  of  the  two  gear  shafts  and  the  car  is  travelling  on  the  level. 
If  the  gear  ratio  is  not  altered,  and  the  car  encounters  an  incline, 
the  engine  is  called  upon  to  do  an  extra  amount  of  work,  and 
therefore  slows  down,  as  well  as  the  car,  unless  other  means  are 
brought  to  its  aid,  such  as  altering  the  mixture  entering  the 
carburettor,  or  advancing  the  point  of  ignition. 

Transmission  Summarized. — One  of  the  shafts  of  the  gear  box 
then  transmits  the  power  by  means  of  bevel  gear  to  a  cross-shaft 


220  MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 

which  carries  the  differential  gear  in  the  centre  and  chain  sprockets 
at  each  end,  if  it  is  a  chain-driven  car,  while  if  it  is  a  cardan  shaft- 
diiven  car,  which  is  more  likely  in  the  light  of  present  practice, 
having  a  live  axle,  the  gear  box  shaft  ‘will  convey  its  power  through 
universal  couplings  to  a  cardan  or  propeller  shaft  which  is  in 
direct  communication  with  the  differential  gear,  through  which  is 
d liven  the  road  wheels  attached  to  the  live  axle.  In  a  chain-driven 
car  the  back  axle  is  a  fixture,  and  the  wheels  rotate  on  the  axle 
arms  as  in  a  horse-drawn  carriage.  Such  is  a  brief  outline  of  the 
transmission  of  the  power  from  the  tail  end  of  the  crank  shaft  to 

the  road  wheels.  The  various  parts  will  now  be  studied  in  more 
detail. 

The  Single- Cylinder  Flywheel. — In  a  single-cylinder  engine  the 
lower  end  of  the  connecting  rod  is  connected  by  the  crank-pin 
between  the  two  halves  of  a  double  flywheel,  weighted  so  as  to 
balance  the  impulses.  The  whole  arrangement  is  contained  within 
the  crank  case,  and  necessitates  a  separate  outside  member  for  the 
sliding  portion  of  the  clutch  to  engage  with. 

Clutches  are  of  three  patterns,  (a)  the  cone  with  either  the 
smaller  or  larger  diameter  towards  the  flywheel,  ( b )  the  disc  or  plate 
with  plain  or  groove  contact,  and  ( c )  the  expanding,  the  order  given 
being  according  to  their  degree  of  popularity. 

The  Ordinary  Cone  Clutch— With,  the  cone  clutch  of  the  ordinary 
type,  that  is,  the  smaller  diameter  engaging  first  with  the  flywheel, 
the  latter  is  provided  with  a  corresponding  cone-shaped  recess 
within  its  rim,  so  that  the  two  portions  engage  with  a  loose  fit, 
allowing  for  a  thickness  of  leather  with  which  the  sliding  portion  is 
encircled.  The  flywheel  is  bolted  to  the  tail  end  of  the  crank 
shaft  by  a  collar,  which  may  be  let  into  a  corresponding  recess  on 
the  engine  side  of  the  flywheel. 

The  sliding  leather-faced  cone  is  bolted  to  a  hollow  shaft,  which 
is  free  to  slide  on  an  inner  shaft,  having  a  front  bearing  on  the  boss 
of  the  flywheel  immediately  behind  the  tail  end  of  the  crank  shaft, 
and  the  bolts  which  hold  the  collar  just  mentioned  pass  through  a 
similar  flange  on  the  other  side  of  the  flywheel,  holding  all  securely 
together.  The  other  end  of  this  clutch-shaft  has,  of  course,  a 
bearing  in  the  front  end  of  the  gear  box,  often  through  one  or  a 
pair  of  universal  couplings,  especially  if  the  gear  box  be  a  separate 


TRANSMISSION 


221 


unit.  The  hollow  shaft,  or  sleeve,  to  which  the  male  portion  is 
bolted,  although  free  to  slide  on  the  clutch  shaft,  is  compelled  to 
turn  with  it  either  by  the  bearing  surfaces  being  squared  or  else 
castellated  by  means  of  outstanding  feathers  or  ribs.  The  clutch  is 
kept  up  to  its  work  by  a  strong  spiral  spring  encircling  the  clutch- 
shaft,  having  a  bearing  on  two  flanges,  one  at  the  back  end  of  the 
clutch  shaft,  and  the  other  at  the  end  of  the  hollow  sliding  shaft. 
This  shaft  also  has  a  grooved  collar  on  it,  into  which  a  fork  in 
connection  with  the  clutch  pedal  can  be  moved.  When  the  driver 
places  his  foot  on  the  pedal  the  grooved  collar  is  pushed  against  the 
spring,  so  that  the  clutch  is  disengaged.  In  designing  this  im¬ 
portant  part  of  the  mechanism  the  main  object  is  to  provide  a 
gradual  and  smooth  contact.  The  leather  may  be  provided  with 
small  spiral  or  other  springs  under  its  surface  for  that  purpose,  so 
that  the  centre  of  the  leather  tends  to  engage  first,  and  the  angle  of 
engagement  is  also  a  determining  factor,  which  in  practice  works 
out  at  about  twelve  degrees.  The  leather  is  attached  to  the  fly¬ 
wheel  with  copper  rivets,  which  have  to  be  recessed  in.  below 
the  surface,  and  in  the  wear  which  results  these  rivet  heads 
have  to  be  watched  to  see  that  they  do  not  scratch  the  female 
portion  of  the  clutch,  a  matter  which  has  had  something  to  do  with 
the  preference  shown  in  some  quarters  for  metal  to  metal  clutches. 
The  clutch  leather  may  also  be  fitted  in  segments,  making  renewal 
a  simpler  matter.  In  the  type  of  clutch  described,  the  pressure  of 
the  spring  when  the  clutch  is  in  is  continually  pushing  the  ends  of 
the  shaft  against  its  end  bearings.  To  resist  the  greater  part 
of  this  strain,  a  ball  thrust  bearing  is  provided,  which  has  the  effect 
of  pulling  against  the  tail  end  of  the  crank  shaft,  and  so  counteract¬ 
ing  some  of  the  opposing  forces.  The  ball  race  nearest  to  the 
crank  shaft  is  fastened  securely  to  the  clutch  shaft,  while  the  other 
race  is  attached  to  a  housing  fastened  to  the  crank  shaft. 

This  thrust,  however,  may  be  avoided  by  mounting  the  clutch 
on  the  extension  of  the  crank  shaft,  which  has  a  collar  and  nut 
provided  for  retaining  the  spring  over  which  the  sliding  sleeve  is 
encircled. 

The  Reversed  Cone  Clutch . — Another  method  of  avoiding  end 
thrust  is  to  use  the  second  type  of  clutch  mentioned  under  (a), 
which  has  the  larger  diameter  of  the  cone  towards  the  flywheel, 


222 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


also  known  as  the  reversed,  inverted,  or  internal  cone  clutch.  The 
cone  may  fit  into  the  hollow  of  the  flywheel  itself,  or  into  a  casting 
specially  bolted  on  for  the  purpose.  The  engaging  spring,  having 
to  act  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  type  already  described,  is 
between  the  flywheel  and  cone,  and  the  fork  from  the  pedal  works 
in  a  grooved  collar  outside.  This  makes  a  more  compact  arrange¬ 
ment,  but  has  the  disadvantage  that  the  spring  is  difficult  to  get  at, 
while  the  flywheel  has  to  be  made  in  two  pieces. 

The  Multiple-Disc  Clutch. — With  the  multiple-disc  clutch  a 
number  of  plates  are  spaced  equally  apart,  and  attached  to  a  case 
fitted  to  the  flywheel.  Between  these  plates  another  set  are 
arranged,  fixed  inside  a  drum  on  the  clutch  shaft,  so  that  when  the 
pedal  is  released  each  pair  of  alternate  plates  engage  and  transmit 
the  drive.  The  plates  may  be  flat  or  grooved ;  in  the  latter  case, 
these  grooves  or  notches  forming  a  series  of  small  cone  clutches. 
In  the  Hele-Shaw  clutch  the  outer  driving  plates  are  of  phosphor 
bronze,  and  the  inner  driven  ones  of  steel.  A  sleeve  slides  on  the 
clutch  shaft  in  the  usual  way,  and  is  provided  with  a  shaped  disc 
which,  under  the  pressure  of  the  ordinary  type  of  spiral  spring, 
presses  against  the  end  of  the  series  of  plates,  so  causing  each  pair 
to  engage.  The  thrust  is  provided  for  because  the  outer  collar 
bearing  of  the  spring  is  directly  attached  to  the  flywheel.  The 
plates  work  in  a  bath  of  oil,  and  in  order  that  there  shall  be  no 
sticking  the  driving  plates  are  fitted  with  small  laminated  springs, 
which  are  in  compression  when  the  clutch  is  engaged.  To  ensure 
that  the  rotating  clutch  shall  be  quickly  and  easily  arrested  the 
actuator  which  is  fastened  to  the  clutch  sleeve,  and  is  worked  by 
the  pedal  in  its  backward  and  disengaging  motion,  retreats  on  to  a 
coned  part  immediately  at  the  rear,  so  that  a  powerful  brake  is 
provided. 

The  Single-Plate  hype. — The  single-plate  clutch  is  a  simpler 
metal- to -metal  type.  The  flywheel  has  a  flat  surface,  against  which 
the  metal  disc,  free  to  slide  on  a  squared  shaft,  is  normally  in  con¬ 
tact.  The  metal  disc  is  actuated  by  another  plate  immediately 
behind  it,  controlled  by  a  spiral  spring  under  control  of  the  usual 
pedal,  so  that,  when  the  car  is  running,  three  more  or  less  disc 
surfaces  are  in  contact— the  flywheel,  central  metal  disc,  and  the 
actuating  disc.  Slightly  more  complicated,  yet  more  compact,  is 


TRANSMISSION 


223 


the  De  Dion  type,  in  which  the  metal  disc  is  within  a  metal  box 
bolted  to  the  crank  shaft  extension.  Within  this  case,  on  the  gear¬ 
box  side,  is  bolted  a  metal  ring,  which  is  in  contact  with  one  side  of 
the  disc,  while  on  the  other  side  is  another  disc,  but  free  to  slide 
slightly,  and  controlled  by  a  series  of  small  spiral  springs  arranged 
around  its  circumference.  The  pressure  of  these  springs,  as  in 
other  types  of  clutches,  keeps  the  central  disc  in  engagement,  and 
their  pressure  can  be  removed  by  a  series  of  suitable  levers  con¬ 
nected  to  the  pedal  in  the  usual  manner.  The  multiple  disc,  and 
the  single-plate  clutch  first  described,  run  in  a  bath  of  oil,  but  the 
variety  just  described  needs  no  lubrication  of  the  engaging  surfaces. 

The  Expanding  Variety. — The  expanding  clutch  is  so  constructed 
that,  as  it  spins,  it  increases  in  diameter  until  it  finally  comes  in 
contact  with  the  inner  surface  of  the  flywheel.  The  action  is  centri¬ 
fugal,  and,  as  the  clutch  is  capable  of  enlargement,  it  has  to  be  in 
several  portions,  and,  as  the  degree  of  centrifugal  action  depends  on 
the  weight  at  the  rim,  the  clutch  has  to  be  made  heavier  here, 
although  in  the  cone  type  an  aluminium  rim  is  often  attached  to  a 
cast-iron  centre,  so  that  its  spinning  may  be  arrested  with  the  least 
delay.  The  faster  a  car  is  going  fitted  with  an  expanding  clutch,  the 
tighter  it  holds,  so  that  a  strong  and  well-designed  pedal  arrangement 
is  required  for  its  ready  disengagement. 

The  Attachment  of  the  Gear-Box. — The  gear-box  casting  is 
attached  to  the  frame  by  suitable  lugs  fastened  above  or  below  to 
cross  members  or  to  a  special  longitudinal  under  frame.  The  gear¬ 
box  arms  are  seldom  attached  direct  to  the  sides  of  the  main  frame, 
the  length  of  arm  necessary  being  considered  a  source  of  weakness. 

The  gear-box  should  be  as  light  and  compact  as  possible,  and 
the  best  patterns  are  of  malleable  cast  iron  with  an  aluminium  lid, 
which  is  easily  removable.  Webs  are  cast  on,  so  as  to  strengthen 
the  box  at  the  shaft  bearings  and  to  enable  the  box  to  have  thin 
walls. 

The  principles  adopted  in  transmitting  the  various  ratios  of  speed 
are  broadly  of  two  kinds,  (a)  the  shaft-to-shaft  drive  throughout,  and 
( b )  a  similar  drive  on  the  low  speeds  with  a  direct  drive  on  generally 
the  top  speed,  during  which  the  crank  shaft  is  in  direct  communi¬ 
cation  with  the  propeller  shaft,  and  turns  at  the  same  rate. 

With  the  former  type,  the  gear-box  has  suitable  bearings  for 


224 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


two  shafts,  generally  side  by  side,  but  they  may  be  one  above  the 
other,  one  of  which — the  primary  shaft — is  in  line  with  the  clutch 
shaft,  and  the  other  with  the  bevel  drive  on  the  sprocket  shaft,  or 
the  propeller  shaft  of  a  chainless  car.  When  the  car  is  at  rest  and 
the  engine  running,  the  primary  shaft  revolves  idly. 

The  Working  of  the  Gear  Lever. — The  changing  of  the  gear 
lever  from  the  neutral  to  the  first  speed  position  slightly  revolves 
the  cross  shaft  to  which  it  is  attached,  which  in  turn  actuates  a 
selector  lever,  which,  according  to  the  position  of  the  gear  lever, 
engages  with  a  slot  in  a  certain  selector  bar.  To  this  is  fastened 
the  proper  fork  which  engages  with  a  grooved  collar,  which  pushes 
the  proper  wheel  mounted  on  a  sleeve  (like  a  clutch)  on  the  primary 
shaft  into  mesh  with  the  right  one  on  the  secondary,  counter,  or  lay 
shaft,  the  primary  shaft  having  been  slowed  down  by  removal  of 
the  clutch. 

The  second  speed  is  similarly  worked  through  a  different  selector 
bar  and  fork,  and  probably  a  third  speed  also,  while  the  reverse, 
which,  by  the  way,  is  legally  necessary,  is  arranged  by  inserting  a 
third  small  pinion  on  a  separate  shaft,  or  shifting  a  pinion  on  the 
primary  shaft  into  mesh  with  two  others  already  engaged.  As  one 
of  the  outside  wheels  does  the  driving,  the  other  end  one  will  be 
revolving  in  the  same  direction  or  in  the  reverse  way  to  which  it 
usually  runs  when  the  forward  gears  are  in  operation. 

The  Direction  of  Gear  Wheel  Revolution. — This  brings  to  notice 
the  interesting  point  that  the  clutch  shaft  in  front  of  the  gear  box, 
and  the  propeller  shaft  behind  it,  are,  when  the  car  is  travelling 
forwards,  revolving  in  opposite  directions,  the  direction  of  move¬ 
ment  being  again  reversed  in  the  final  bevel  drive  to  the  road 
wheels.  Two  or  any  even  number  of  gear  wheels  intermeshing 
drive  the  outside  ones  in  opposite  ways,  any  odd  number  result 
in  the  same  direction  of  movement  of  the  outer  ones.  Also  bevel 
wheels  intermeshing  on  either  side  of  another  bevel  wheel  revolve 
in  opposite  directions.  Two  wheels  joined  by  a  chain  or  belt  revolve 
in  the  same  direction,  or  if  the  belt  be  crossed  in  opposite  directions. 

Constant  Mesh  Gears.— The  second  type  of  gear  box  has  two 
shafts  as  before,  but  two  of  the  gear  wheels  (one  on  each  shaft)  are 
always  in  mesh.  The  primary  shaft  is  provided  with  a  sliding 
sleeve  as  before,  on  which  the  gear  wheels  for  producing  the  gear 


TRANSMISSION 


225 


ratios  with  those  fixed  on  the  secondary  shaft  are  to  be  found. 
When  the  gears  are  selective  through  a  gate  change,  as  with  most 
modern  cars,  each  one  or  a  pair  of  gear  wheels  is  on  a  short  sleeve 
of  its  own,  but  usually  on  the  same  solid  shaft,  so  that  one  speed 
may  be  gained  by  shifting  to  the  right,  and  another  by  shifting  to 
the  left  without  having  to  pass  through  any  other  gear  ratio.  With 
this  type  of  gear  box  the  low  speeds,  it  will  be  seen,  are  obtained  by 
the  motion  being  transmitted 
first  to  the  secondary  shaft  by 
the  constant-mesh  pinions,  and 
then  back  again  to  the  primary 
shaft  when  the  proper  gear 
wheels  are  in  mesh. 

The  Direct  Drive. — The  di¬ 
rect  drive  is  obtained  by  a  dog 
or  positive  clutch  (as  distinct 
from  a  friction  clutch)  engaging, 
one  part  of  which  is  incorpo¬ 
rated  with  one  of  the  constant 

mesh  pinions,  and  the  other  ,  Fi2,\  38*— Four  speed  (selective)  gear 

..  ■  frox’  The  numbering  of  the  pinion  wheels 

generally  on  the  Side  OI  tile  next  corresponds  on  each  shaft,  No.  1  engaging 

lnwpfit  cfpny*  wVippI  with  No,  1  to  give  the  first  speed,  and  so 

lowest  geai  wneei.  .  _  on.  No.  4  engages  endways  to  give  the 

A  plan  now  gaining  favour  direct  drive.  A,  shifting  mechanism  for 

iq  for  fihp  third  qnppd  whppl  to  third  and  fourth  speeds ;  B,  ditto  for  first, 
IS  101  cne  tnil Cl  speeci  wneei  to  second,  and  reverse;  C,  constant-mesh 

slide  into  an  internally  toothed  g?aF  wiieels ;  lay  shaft  on  which  the 
,  , ,  ,  ,  .  pinions  are  only  free  to  turn  with  the 

extension  OI  the  constant  mesh  shaft ;  E,  main  shaft  connected  to  clutch 

gear.  The  power  lost  in  trans-  r  arfLpr?P  f.°  ithe  ?^°?eller  s1haft ; 

mission  in  the  gear  box  is  often  revolving. 

as  low  as  10  per  cent,  on  a  car 

with  well-cut  and  shaped  gear  wheels,  carefully  fitted  and  made  of 
the  right  steel.  On  the  other  hand,  the  doubly  indirect  low  speeds 
often  entail  the  loss  of  quite  20  per  cent.,  so  that  unless  the  direct 
speed  is  made  use  of  considerably,  its  existence,  seeing  the  lessened 
capabilities  of  the  low  speeds,  is  hardly  justified. 

If  the  constant-mesh  pinions  are  at  the  back  end  of  the  gear 
box  instead  of  the  usual  front  position  it  can  easily  be  arranged 
for  the  secondary  shaft  to  run  idle  when  the  low  speeds  are  not 
required.  The  sliding  sleeve  when  it  has  attached  to  it  all  the 


226 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


speed  gears  is  known  as  the  run  or  straight-through  type,  in  which 
it  is  necessary  to  go  through  each  speed  when  changing  from  the 
first  to  fourth,  and  vice  versa. 

The  primary  shaft,  on  which  the  sleeve  is  fitted,  is  finished 
either  square  or  with  feathers  or  ribs  as  with  a  clutch,  while  the 
end  of  this  shaft  is  shouldered  down  (spigotted)  so  as  to  give  a 
bearing  on  which  one  of  the  constant  mesh  pinions  may  revolve, 
as  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  have  motion  independently,  since 
the  sliding  sleeve  mounted  on  the  same  shaft  has  to  transmit 
various  speeds. 

With  the  shaft  to  shaft  drive  throughout,  the  smaller  wheels  of 
each  gear  ratio  will  be  on  the  sleeve  of  the  primary  shaft,  but  with 
the  type  giving  direct  drive  on  the  top  speed  the  arrangement  will 
be  reversed,  as  the  drive  being  first  transmitted  to  the  secondary 
shaft  by  the  constant  mesh  pinions,  the  larger  wheels  will  be  on 
the  sleeve. 

Unit  Construction. — When  the  unit  type  of  construction  is  used 
a  series  of  attached  castings  may  incorporate  engine,  flywheel, 
clutch  and  gear  box.  This  means  that  the  various  parts  so  encased 
must  be  in  line.  On  the  other  hand,  the  use  of  universal  joints  both 
in  front  and  behind  the  gear  box  gives  the  drive  a  great  amount  of 
flexibility,  and  also  does  not  demand  a  great  deal  of  precision  in 
assembling  these  parts  on  the  chassis;  also  any  great  twisting 
strain  on  the  chassis  will  not  put  it  out  of  running. 

Gear  Box  Design. — The  modern  gear  box  can  usually  be  in¬ 
spected  from  the  top,  the  rest  of  the  box  being  solid.  If  it  is  split 
at  the  bearing  centre  lubricant  is  liable  to  escape,  and  in  some 
chain  driven  cars,  where  the  gear  box  is  well  back  on  the  chassis  so 
as  to  keep  the  chains  short,  the  bottom  half  of  the  box  may  come 
away,  as  inspection,  with  regard  to  the  position  of  the  body,  is 
presumed  to  be  difficult  from  the  top.  Lubrication  is  necessarily  more 
effective  and  cleanly  when  only  a  light  lid  is  removable,  and  if  the 
shafts  are  side  by  side,  rather  than  above  one  another,  the  lubrica¬ 
tion  of  all  teeth  and  bearings  is  more  positive. 

Gear  Wheels. — The  gear  wheels  themselves  are  seldom  turned 
in  the  solid  on  the  shaft,  as  renewals  become  very  expensive. 
They  are  now  either  ring-bolted,  or  threaded  on  and  keyed  with 
distance  pieces  between.  The  teeth  are  cut  in  specially  toughened 


TRANSMISSION 


227 

steel  with  great  care  to  ensure  accuracy,  and  the  edges  are  bevelled 
so  as  to  aid  in  the  end  engagement  of  the  teeth. 

The  mechanism  which  enters  the  gear  box  to  shift  the  gears 
should  be  designed  so  as  to  allow  as  little  grit  and  dust  as  possible 
to  enter,  and  for  this  reason  most  makes  of  cars  have  the  selector 
rods  and  levers  enclosed  in  the  gear  box,  while  the  gate  in  which 
the  gear  lever  works  is  sometimes  encased  also.  The  simplest  method 
of  changing,  so  far  as  mechanism  is  concerned,  is  of  course  the  run- 
through  type,  and  a  small  lever  may  be  arranged  conveniently 
under  the  steering  wheel  on  the  column. 

The  Differential  Gear. — In  the  normal  pattern  of  petrol  chassis, 
the  power  is  leaving  the  gear  box  by  means  of  a  shaft  which  is  revolv¬ 
ing  at  right  angles  to  the  hind  axle,  therefore  it  must  be  coupled  to 
a  bevel  or  worm  drive,  so  that  it  may  be  utilized  to  drive  the  hind 
wheels.  So  long  as  the  car  travels  in  a  straight  line,  over  a  level 
road  of  exactly  the  same  character  all  over  its  surface,  the  friction 
between  the  hind  tyres  (presuming  the  wheels  to  be  the  same  size, 
with  same  texture  and  so  on  of  tyre)  and  the  road  will  be  the  same. 
This,  however,  as  might  be  supposed,  is  a  practical  impossibility 
even  for  a  minute  or  two,  bearing  in  mind  the  several  circumstances 
which  must  prevail.  If  the  back  axle  were  positively  geared  to  the 
transmission  from  the  gear  box,  the  result  would  be  that  in  turning 
a  corner  no  allowance  could  be  made  for  the  extra  distance  to  be 
travelled  by  the  outer  wheel,  consequently,  even  under  favourable 
conditions,  there  would  be  plenty  of  skidding,  as  well  as  strain  on 
the  driving  mechanism. 

To  obviate  this  the  differential,  or  balance  gear,  is  used,  the 
same  principle  as  adopted  on  a  tricycle,  which  allows  the  two  hind 
wheels  to  revolve  at  different  speeds. 

In  the  first  place,  if  it  is  a  chain-driven  car,  the  counter  shaft 
on  which  the  chain  sprockets  are  mounted  is  divided  in  the  centre, 
while  if  it  is  a  gear-driven  car,  the  hind  axle  is  similarly  treated. 
To  the  inner  end  of  each  half  axle  or  shaft  is  keyed  a  bevel  wheel 
with  the  bevel  facing  inwards.  At  right  angles,  and  equally  spaced, 
are  two,  or  generally  four,  smaller  bevel  pinions  mounted  on  short 
studs  fixed  into  the  differential  casing,  so  that  the  whole  set  of 
bevel  pinions  is  inside.  Outside  the  case  is  a  large  bevel  wheel, 
generally  called  the  crown  wheel,  which  is  in  gear  with  a  smaller 


228 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


wheel  firmly  attached  to  the  tail  end  of  the  propeller  shaft.  When 
the  propeller  shaft  turns  it  revolves  the  crown  wheel,  and  con¬ 
sequently  the  whole  differential  box  with  it.  If  the  friction  at  the 
road  wheels  is  the  same  on  each  side,  the  whole  of  the  internal 
pinions  will  revolve  solidly,  transmitting  an  equal  speed  to  both 
halves  of  the  axle.  Should,  however,  the  car  be  turning  a  corner, 
or  be  steered  out  of  the  straight  line,  or  encounter  an  obstacle, 
the  pinions  on  one  side  will  revolve  on  their  own  studs,  and  a 
corresponding  decreased  speed  takes  place  on  the  side  where 
there  is  the  more  friction.  This  is  because  the  axle  is  in  two 
halves,  and  each  half  is  free  to  move  independently,  like  the 
two  sides  of  a  pair  of  scales.  If  more  weight  is  placed  in  one  pan, 
that  pan  will  lag  behind.  In  the  motor  car,  the  weight  is  repre¬ 
sented  by  the  friction  between  tyre  and  road,  therefore  the  greater 
the  friction,  the  more  that  half  of  the  axle  will  lag  behind.  In 
turning  a  corner  the  bottom  point  of  the  inside  wheel  becomes  for 
the  time  being  a  pivot,  and  sets  up  considerably  more  friction  with 
the  road  by  reason  of  its  position  than  the  outer  one,  which  is 
describing  a  circle  of  greater  radius. 

In  place  of  bevel  wheels  ordinary  straight  pinions  or  face  gear 
may  be  used,  but  the  principle  is  the  same. 

When  there  is  a  live  axle,  the  whole  of  the  moving  parts  are 
usually  covered  by  a  hollow  casing,  on  the  ends  of  which  the  hind 
springs  are  mounted,  so  that  the  weight  of  the  car  is  borne  inde¬ 
pendently  of  the  transmission  mechanism.  The  ends  of  the  live 
axle  are  fastened  by  means  of  a  dog  clutch  to  the  road  wheels.  With 
the  crown  wheel  outside  the  differential  case  opportunity  is  taken  to 
reduce  the  speed  of  the  propeller  shaft,  as  the  pinion  mounted  on 
the  end  of  the  latter  is  considerably  smaller,  so  that  although  there 
is  a  “direct”  drive,  the  engine  speed  is  not  transmitted  to  the  road 
wheels.  The  inner  differential  case  is  in  two  halves,  so  that  it  can 
be  assembled  with  the  half  axles  and  pinions,  likewise  the  outside 
case  covering  the  crown  wheel. 

The  Back  Axle. — The  tube  carrying  the  live  axle  inside  not 
only  carries  the  springs  on  suitable  flaps,  but  the  bearings  for  the 
hind  wheel  brakes  which  are  worked  by  the  usual  hand  lever.  A 
tie  rod  is  usually  present  to  strengthen  the  whole,  while  webs  are 
cast  on  at  the  point  where  the  strain  is  greatest,  as  with  a  gear  box. 


TRANSMISSION 


229 


With  a  chain- driven  car  the  axle  is  as  simple  as  with  a  horse- 
drawn  carriage,  all  the  necessary  complication  being  confined  to  the 
sprocket  counter  shaft.  This  “  dead  ”  axle  may  be  a  solid  forging, 
tube,  or  of  H  or  other  section ;  it  may  also  be  cranked  so  that  the 
body  may  be  brought  lower  to  the  ground. 

Epicyclic  Gears. — Another  type  of  change-speed  gear  consists  of 
the  planetary,  crypto,  or  epicyclic  gear,  in  which  gear  wheels  are 
constantly  in  mesh,  and  convey  power,  when  required,  by  means  of 
band  brakes.  One  of  the  names  by  which  this  system  of  gearing  is 
known,  it  will  be  noticed,  is  the  “  planetary  system.”  This  is 
because  a  central  sun  wheel  is  intermeshed  with  one  or  more  sur¬ 
rounding  planet  wheels.  The  sun  wheel  is  keyed  to  the  crank 
shaft,  and  the  planetary  wheels,  although  free  to  revolve  on  their 
own  centres,  cannot  move  independently  away  from  one  another, 
being  held  apart  at  equal  distances  by  a  star-shaped  device.  The 
sun  and  planet  wheels  revolve  as  a  whole  inside  an  internal  gear 
wheel. 

The  principle  of  working  will  be  first  explained,  and  then  the 
modifications  adopted  in  the  application.  The  central  sun  wheel  is 
keyed  to  the  crank  shaft,  so  that  it  always  revolves  with  it.  The 
planetary  wheels  are  centred  on  studs  attached  to  a  ring  or  star, 
which  is  mounted  on  a  sleeve,  so  that  it  may  move  independently  of 
the  crank  shaft.  The  outer  ring,  with  its  internal  teeth,  is  similarly 
mounted.  When  the  slow  speed  is  engaged,  a  band  brake  is 
brought  into  operation,  which  holds  the  outer  ring  stationary.  The 
sun  wheel,  in  revolving,  causes  the  planetary  wheels  to  revolve  on 
their  own  centres  in  the  opposite  direction,  but,  owing  to  the 
internal  gear  ring  being  fast,  these  wheels  mount  round  it  as  a  series 
in  the  same  direction  as  the  crank  shaft,  and  at  a  reduced  speed 
proportional  to  the  number  of  teeth  on  the  planetary  wheels  and 
the  number  on  the  internal  gear  ring. 

For  the  high  speed  a  clutch  engages  with  a  cone  forming  a  part 
of  the  internal  gear  wheel,  and,  no  band  brake  being  in  operation, 
the  set  of  gearing  revolves  as  a  whole  at  the  crank  shaft  speed,  but 
the  planetary  wheels  do  not  revolve  on  their  own  centres  inde¬ 
pendently.  For  the  reverse,  another  band  brake  is  used,  which 
holds  the  ring  on  which  the  series  of  planetary  wheels  are  mounted. 
This  has  the  effect  of  allowing  them  to  revolve  on  their  own  centres, 


230 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


but  not  round  the  sun  wheel,  consequently  they  transmit  their 
motion  to  the  internal  gear  wheel,  moving  its  rim  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  that  of  the  sun  wheel  and  crank  shaft. 

In  practice,  when  there  are  two  speeds,  and  a  reverse,  there  are 
two  sets  of  sun  wheels  and  surrounding  planetary  and  internal  gear 
wheels.  Between  these  two  sets  of  wheels  is  mounted  a  sprocket  or 
other  wheel  for  transmitting  the  drive  to  the  back  axle.  This  sprocket 
is  integral  with  a  sleeve,  on  one  end  of  which  is  mounted  the  ring 
or  plate  carrying  the  studs  and  planetary  wheels  for  the  low  speed, 
and  at  the  other  end  the  internal  gear  for  the  reverse.  Over  this 
reverse  internal  gear  wheel  is  carried  another  sleeve,  mounted  from 
the  engine  side,  which  carries  the  planetary  reverse  wheels,  while 
over  the  ring  carrying  the  low-speed  planetary  wheels  runs  a  sleeve 
mounted  from  the  back  axle  side,  carrying  the  low-speed  internal 
gear  wheel.  Over  each  of  these  outer  sleeves  runs  a  band  brake,  the 
last-mentioned  being  also  provided  with  a  cone,  so  that  it  may 
be  revolved  as  well  as  arrested. 

By  applying  the  band  brake  on  the  sleeve  which  has  an  internal 
gear  wheel  on  it,  the  crank  shaft  moves  both  sun  wheels,  all  the 
planetary  wheels  in  both  sets,  and  incidentally  the  internal  gear 
wheel  provided  for  the  reverse,  but,  of  course,  only  idly. 

For  the  high  speed,  the  clutch  moves  the  internal  gear  wheel, 
which  has  recently  been  held  fast,  and  takes  round  bodily  with  it 
both  sun  wheels,  all  the  planetary  wheels,  and  the  reverse  internal 
gear.  When  the  reverse  is  in  operation,  a  band  brake  is  applied  to 
the  sleeve  outside  the  reverse  internal  gear  wheel,  which  carries  the 
reverse  planetary  wheels.  This,  therefore,  prevents  their  rota¬ 
tion  round  the  sun  wheel,  but  allows  them  to  revolve  each  inde¬ 
pendently  on  their  own  centres,  driving  the  internal  gear  ring  in 
the  opposite  direction,  and  the  sprocket  wheel  with  it. 

The  central  sleeve,  which  carries  the  sprocket,  the  forward 
planetary  wheels,  and  the  reverse  internal  gear,  are  always  revolving, 
whether  the  high,  low  speed,  or  the  reverse  is  being  used. 

This  system  of  change-speed  gear  is  but  little  used,  probably 
owing  to  its  seeming  complication,  that  is  the  large  number  of 
wheels  necessary  to  effect  only  two  speeds  forward  and  a  reverse ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  actual  gear  changing  is  more  easily 
done,  and  requires  little  experience,  and,  from  the  engineering  point 


TRANSMISSION 


231 


of  view,  is  a  more  satisfactory  method,  although,  as  practice  goes  to 
show,  under  ordinary  care  and  with  a  fair  amount  of  skill,  the 
normal  type  of  gear  box  wears  well,  except,  perhaps,  for  the  arduous 
service  which  omnibuses  and  cabs  have  to  undergo. 

The  objection  that  only  two  speeds  can  be  obtained  has  been 
removed,  and  in  modern  cars  one  may  have  three  speeds  forward 
and  a  reverse.  The  principle  of  working  by  means  of  the  applica¬ 
tion  and  release  of  band  brakes,  and  the  use  of  planetary  and  sun 
wheels,  is  similar,  but  there  are  naturally  differences  as  to  detail. 

The  following  should  be  read  in  conjunction  with  Fig.  39. 

The  Adams  Gear. — A  notable  type  is  that  used  on  the  Adams 
car.  The  whole  gearing  is  contained  in  an  aluminium  gear  box,  so 
that  the  mechanism  is  protected  to  the  same  degree  as  with  the 
ordinary  sliding  type  of  gear  box,  a  refinement  which  has  not 
always  been  present  with  epicyclic  change-speed  gears.  A  sun 
wheel  A  is  keyed  to  the  shaft  B,  which  is  in  direct  communication 
with  the  female  portion  of  an  ordinary  cone  clutch.  This  sun 
wheel  is  then  in  constant  mesh  with  two  planetary  wheels,  C,  CT, 
the  duplication  of  these  wheels,  and  in  the  type  just  described,  only 
being  done  for  the  sake  of  balance.  Each  of  the  planetary  wheels 
is  keyed  to  a  shaft  running  in  a  cage,  similar  to  the  inner  case  of  a 
differential  gear  (in  fact,  the  comparison  is  carried  further,  because 
a  differential  action  takes  place  within  this  cage),  and  these  shafts 
carry  the  necessary  pinion  wheels  for  the  various  speeds.  The 
clutch  shaft  is  spigotted  into  the  propeller  shaft  as  in  a  direct-drive 
gear  box,  and  here  is  mounted  a  gear  wheel  E  on  a  sleeve,  con¬ 
stantly  in  mesh  with  another  wheel  F,  positively  connected  to  the 
same  shaft  as  the  planetary  wheel  C.  There  is  no  internal  gear 
wheel  with  the  Adams  gear.  Taking  the  second  speed  first,  the 
main  clutch  transmits  power  to  the  sun  wheel  A,  and  then  to  the 
planetary  wheels,  one  of  which,  C,  is  on  the  same  shaft  with 
the  wheel  F,  which  is  intermeshed  with  the  wheel  E  on  the  sleeve 
of  the  propeller  shaft.  The  speed  is  reduced  as  between  clutch 
shaft  and  propeller  shaft  owing  to  the  number  of  teeth  on  the  sun 
wheel  A  being  less  than  those  in  the  planetary  wheel,  C.  While 
this  speed  is  in  operation  the  gear  cage  is  held  fast  by  the  band 
brake,  G.  For  the  free  engine  motion  the  cage  is  released,  with  the 
result  that  the  pinion  F  walks  or  mounts  round  E,  which  is  the 


232 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


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Fig.  39. — Diagram  illustrating  the  Adams  (Epicyclic)  change-speed  gear.  The 
blackened  portions  are  stationary  in  each  case.  1,  second  speed  ;  2,  first  speed  ;  3,  top 
speed  ;  4,  free  engine  ;  5,  reverse  ;  6,  how  the  gear  wheels  would  be  arranged  if  there 
was  only  one  shaft ;  A,  sun  wheel ;  B,  clutch  shaft ;  C,  O',  planetary  wheels ;  E, 
pinion  in  connection  with  propeller  shaft ;  F,  pinion  in  mesh  with  E,  and  keyed  to 
upper  shaft ;  G,  band  brake  acting  on  gear  cage  ;  H,  band  brake  acting  with  reverse 
pinion  I ;  I,  reverse  pinion  ;  J,  pinion  in  mesh  with  I,  and  keyed  to  lower  shaft ; 
K,  band  brake  acting  with  pinion  L  ;  L,  pinion  in  mesh  with  M  keyed  to  lower 
shaft ;  M,  pinion  giving  second  speed  with  L.  For  further  detail  see  pages  231,  233. 


TRANSMISSION 


233 


pinion  in  connection  with  the  propeller  shaft,  and  does  not  ievol\e 
it,  since  the  gear  reduction  which  takes  place  does  not  provide 
sufficient  power  to  overcome  the  resistance  betwTeen  road  wheels  and 
road.  For  the  reverse  speed  the  band  brake  H,  in  connection  with 
the  gear  wheel  I,  is  provided.  This  wheel  intermeshes  with  the 
wheel  J  on  the  lower  shaft.  This  band  brake  H  being  applied,  and 
the  cage  brake  G  taken  off,  the  wheel  J  mounts  round  wheel  I, 
taking  the  cage  with  it.  This  is  because  the  wheel  I  has  less  teeth 
than  wheel  J,  consequently,  the  differential  action  works  the  cage 
in  the  reverse  direction  to  the  clutch  shaft.  For  the  first  speed  a 
similar  action  takes  place,  but  in  the  opposite  direction.  A  brake 
drum  K  at  the  other  end  of  the  cage  is  in  the  solid  with  a  gear 
wheel  L  intermeshing  with  a  pinion  M  on  the  other  end  of  the 
lower  shaft.  This  wheel  M  has  less  teeth  than  wheel  L,  therefore 
the  differential  action  is  in  the  opposite  direction. 

For  the  direct  drive  the  cage  and  reverse  band  brake  are  held 
fast  together  by  a  cone  working  against  two  scissor  levers,  so  that 
the  whole  revolves  as  an  extra  flywheel  at  crank  shaft  speed. 

A  well-known  instance  of  the  use  of  an  epicyclic  gear  box  is  the 
system  adopted  by  the  Lanchester  Motor  Co.,  Ltd.  The  Lotis  car 
made  by  Sturmey  Motors,  Ltd.,  also  has  a  gear  box  working  on  a 
similar  principle. 

The  Linley  Gear  Box—  Another  type  which  illustrates  an  up-to- 
date  constant  meshing  type,  but  not  an  epicyclic  pattern,  is  the 
"  Linley  gear  box.  Here  the  wheels  are  provided  with  end-engagmg 
dog  clutches,  the  coupling  up  of  which  is  done  with  great  ingenuity 
by  means  of  specially  shaped  cams  and  spring-controlled  le\eis. 
The  gear  box  contains  a  primary  shaft,  into  which  is  spigotted  a 
secondary  shaft,  both  shafts  being  squared,  where  necessaiy,  to  take 
the  sliding  halves  of  the  dog  clutches,  while  the  gear  wheels  on  the 
primary  and  secondary  shafts  are  free  and  fixed  respectively. 

A  countershaft  has  keyed  to  it  the  remaining  pinions  for  the 
various  speeds,  while  a  separate  cam  shaft  is  also  present,  by  means 
of  which  the  dog  clutches  are  brought  into  play.  The  engagement 
of  a  gear  does  not  take  place  when  the  gear  lever  is  shifted  into  its 
proper  position,  but  it  is  necessary  to  declutch  or  reduce  the  load  on 
the  gear  already  in  mesh,  before  any  change  can  be  effected.  The 
unique  features  of  the  gear  box  are  the  cam  shaft  and  the  cams 


234 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


attached  thereto,  and  the  mechanism  which  they  actuate.  The 
cams  have  their  faces  specially  shaped  with  regard  to  their  profile, 
which  is  in  the  nature  of  a  return  curve,  and  it  should  be  noted 
that  the  face,  and  not  the  edge  of  the  cam,  operates  the  mechanism 
with  which  it  comes  in  contact. 

Each  face  cam  operates  two  swinging  levers,  which  have  roller 
terminals.  These  levers  lie  closely  each  side  of  each  cam  with  the 
exception  of  the  reverse  cam,  which  has  only  one.  Each  swinging 
lever  is  fastened  securely  to  a  short  shaft  running  at  right  angles  to 
the  cam  shaft,  on  which  (free  to  revolve)  is  a  sleeve  carrying  a  pair 
of  forks,  between  which  is  carried,  by  means  of  a  universally  jointed 
collar,  the  moving  portion  of  each  dog  clutch.  The  action  of  the 
profile  of  the  cam  is  so  arranged  that,  as  the  cam  shaft  revolves  by 
means  of  the  bevel  gearing  in  connection  with  the  gear  lever,  in  one 
direction,  it  moves  the  swinging  lever  on  one  side  only,  the  other 
lever  being  operated  on  the  return  journey.  The  collar,  with  its 
two  forks  which  carry  the  dog  clutch,  is  carried  on  a  sleeve,  which, 
it  will  be  remembered,  is  free  to  revolve,  so  that,  to  ensure  the 
swinging  levers  moving  the  dog  clutch  on  the  squared  shaft,  the 
inside  fork  is  provided  with  a  short  striking  lever,  which  comes  in 
contact  with  the  swinging  lever  when  it  is  operated  by  the  cam. 
These  last-mentioned  levers  are  controlled  by  special  springs,  so 
that,  when  the  gear  lever  is  shifted,  the  power  so  transmitted  is  con¬ 
veyed  and  stored  up  in  the  springs  until  the  particular  dog  clutch  is 
disengaged  by  depressing  the  clutch  pedal,  or  in  any  way  whereby 
the  load  on  the  particular  clutch  is  decreased.  When  the  top  speed  is 
in  operation  there  is  a  direct  drive,  and  the  lay  shaft  carrying  the 
keyed  gear  wheels  is  at  rest,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  pinions,  as 
mentioned  before,  are  free  to  revolve  on  the  other  gear  shafts.  In 
changing  from  a  high  gear  to  a  low  gear  it  is  only  necessary  to  shift 
the  gear  lever  and  partially  close  the  throttle.  This  type  of  gear 
box  has  been  eminently  successful  as  part  of  the  transmission 
system  of  a  well-known  make  of  commercial  vehicle,  so  that  its 
practicability  has  already  been  proved,  and  its  adaptation  to  the 
private  car  is  for  the  greater  part  the  designing  of  a  lighter  pattern 
furnished  with  a  few  refinements,  and  greater  gear  ratios,  which  has 
already  been  done. 


CHAPTER  XXI 


LUBRICATION 

An  important  consideration,  from  the  user’s  point  of  view,  is  the 
maintenance  of  the  lubrication  of  the  various  bearings  in  the  car. 
Although  many  systems,  to  a  great  extent,  work  without  attention 
for  a  considerable  time,  yet  the  lubrication  as  a  whole  demands  more 
supervision  than,  say,  the  ignition,  or  the  cooling  water  circulation. 
Of  primary  interest  is  the  means  adopted  to  effect  the  lubrication  of 
the  engine  and  its  parts. 

The  Gravity-feed  System. — The  simplest  method,  the  gravity- 
feed,  is  to  employ  an  oil  tank  mounted  as  high  as  possible,  having 
attached  to  it  several  separate  leads  (usually  of  copper  piping)  which 
run  down  to  the  part  requiring  lubrication.  A  convenient  position 
is  the  engine  side  of  the  dashboard,  where  it  is  slightly  warmed. 
If  the  tank  can  be  mounted  centrally  over  the  engine,  undue  curva¬ 
ture  of  the  piping  is  largely  avoided,  but  this,  in  some  cases,  may 
interfere  with  accessibility  to  the  valves  and  cylinders.  With  a 
system  such  as  this,  the  pressure  is,  of  course,  according  to  the  head 
of  oil  in  the  tank.  In  order  to  satisfy  the  driver  that  the  oil  circu¬ 
lation  is  in  working  order,  it  is  arranged  that  a  portion  of  it  shall  be 
diverted  to  the  dashboard  through  a  sight  feed  lubricator  or  some 
variety  of  tell-tale  device,  such  as  a  gauge,  or  pointer,  working 
according  to  the  flow  of  oil. 

The  sight  feed  lubricator,  which  is  seldom  seen  now  on  a  new 
car,  consists  of  a  horizontal  trough  having  a  number  of  pipes  leading 
from  it,  which  should  not  be  branched,  so  that  interdependence  is 
avoided.  Each  outlet  is  provided  with  a  needle  valve,  somewhat 
after  the  style  of  the  pattern  used  on  a  carburettor,  and  it  is  adjusted 
by  a  milled  head  and  lock  nut  on  the  top,  within  reach  of  the 
driver’s  hand.  If  this  dash  lubricator  is  below  the  tank,  the  liquid 


236 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


can  run  into  it  without  any  mechanical  assistance.  The  use  of  the 
adjustable  valve  is  to  regulate  the  number  of  drops  per  minute 
passing  to  each  bearing,  as  one,  say,  the  main  bearing  of  the  crank 
shaft  immediately  behind  the  flywheel,  may  require  fifty  drops  per 
minute,  while  a  minor  one  perhaps  only  five ;  also  adjustment  will 
depend  on  temperature,  as  oil  will  flow  more  quickly  in  warm  than 
in  cold  weather.  Usually  the  tank  is  heated  slightly  in  some  way, 
either  by  the  cooling  water  or  exhaust  piping  passing  through  it,  or 
simply  by  its  location  under  the  bonnet. 

Splash  Lubrication. — Most  cars  are  now  fitted  with  a  lubricating 
arrangement  which  includes  a  splash  or  spray  system  arranged  in 
the  crank  case  of  the  engine.  This  consists  of  a  pool  of  oil,  into 
which  the  dipper  attached  to  the  big  end  of  the  connecting  rod 
plunges  at  each  revolution,  thereby  throwing  or  splashing  a  spray 
of  oil,  not  only  over  the  crank  shaft,  crank  pin,  and  cam  shaft 
bearings,  but  right  up  to  the  gudgeon  pin  inside  the  piston,  from 
whence  it  runs  down  the  walls  of  the  piston,  and  forms  in  drops  on 
the  lip  of  the  piston,  where  it  is  caught  up  and  lubricates  the  outer 
surface  of  the  piston,  and  consequently  the  cylinder  walls.  The 
splash  system  requires  a  constant  level  to  be  kept  in  the  crank 
chamber,  as  the  big  ends  of  the  connecting  rods  should  dip  about 
i  in.  into  the  pool  of  oil.  As  the  lubricant  becomes  spent  further 
oil  may  be  introduced  into  the  crank  chamber  by  means  of  a  hand 
pump  provided  with  a  two-way  cock,  which  at  the  upstroke  draws 
oil  from  the  tank  and  at  the  downstroke  (the  tap  being  turned  so  as 
to  close  the  way  to  the  tank  and  open  that  to  the  engine)  forces  it 
into  the  crank  chamber. 

Another  method  is  to  utilize  the  pressure  of  the  exhaust  gas,  as 
with  the  petrol  supply,  and  consequently  a  hand  pump  is  necessary 
to  create  the  initial  pressure. 

Splash  lubrication  influences  to  a  great  extent  the  design  of  the 
crank  chamber.  In  order  to  keep  the  oil  at  the  proper  height, 
especially  when  the  car  is  not  on  the  level,  the  crank  chamber  is 
divided  by  vertical  partitions,  so  that  the  forward  cylinder  is  not 
starved  when  going  uphill,  while  the  one  at  the  back  end  is  being 
over-lubricated.  The  dippers,  however,  will  usually  plunge  into 
small  troughs  rather  than  into  the  main  supply,  into  which* the  troughs 
overflow.  Another  refinement  consists  in  dividing  the  crank  case 


LUBRICATION 


237 


into  two  compartments  horizontally,  the  lower  one  merely  forming 
an  oil  reservoir.  This  lower  division  is  so  constructed  that  it 
receives  the  overflow  of  the  upper  part  or  crank  case  proper,  from 
whence  it  is  pumped  up  again. 

The  Forccd-feecl  Method. — The  forced-feed  method  is  adopted  on 
many  engines,  but  seldom  exclusively.  In  this  system  the  oil  is 
pumped  through  the  crank  shaft  and  pins  through  a  special  oilway 
which  is  drilled  through  these  parts.  Sometimes  the  connecting 
rod  itself  is  drilled  to  convey  lubricant  to  the  gudgeon  pin,  but 
usually  it  is  splashed  up  as  already  described,  or  a  small  copper  pipe 
is  attached,  or  it  may  depend  on  the  oil  thrown  off  the  big  ends  and 
crank  webs  which  has  emerged  from  the  bearings. 

The  crank  shaft  bearings,  especially  the  one  by  the  flywheel, 
are,  owing  to  the  heavy  work  they  have  to  perform,  usually  supplied 
direct  with  oil  under  pressure,  while  the  connecting  rod  and  other 
bearings  may  simply  depend  on  the  splash  method.  In  this  instance 
the  oil  pump  delivers  lubricant  through  piping  direct  to  these  parts, 
the  pump  being  driven  by  means  of  a  vertical  shaft  provided  with  a 
bevel  wheel  intermeshing  with  another  on  the  cam  shaft.  A 
simpler  device,  and  considered  by  some  just  as  effective,  is  to  divert 
some  of  the  spray  set  up  by  the  oil  splash  into  funnel-shaped 
channels,  in  which  the  spray  collects  and  runs  into  the  proper 
lubricating  holes. 

On  the  other  hand,  some  makers  have  oil  leads  communicating 
direct,  not  only  to  the  main  bearings,  but  to  those  usually  lubricated 
by  splash  only.  With  the  splash  system,  as  ordinarily  fitted,  there 
is  a  tendency  for  less  oil  to  be  splashed  up  as  the  speed  of  the  engine 
increases,  because  the  troughs  do  not  refill  fast  enough.  In  other 
instances  the  troughs  may  be  interconnected  with  the  throttle  so 
that,  as  the  engine  moves  faster,  the  troughs  are  raised,  and  present 
a  deeper  well  to  the  connecting  rod  dippers. 

Straining  the  Oil. — When  oil  has  done  its  work  it  becomes 
carbonized  and  in  time  will  be  impregnated  with  these  carbon 
particles  and  fine  metallic  dust  from  the  bearings,  and  other  foreign 
matter,  so  that  if  it  is  to  be  used  again  it  must  pass  through  an 
efficient  strainer,  such  as  a  system  of  different-gauge  wire  meshes, 
which  must  be  easily  removable  to  allow  of  cleaning  at  intervals. 
Clean  oil  is  necessary,  not  only  that  it  shall  carry  on  its  function  of 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


238 

reducing  friction  to  a  minimum,  but  also  that  it  may  flow  freely  in 
the  small  pipes,  and  other  oilways.  For  the  same  reason  the  pump 

itself  should  be  easily  demountable. 

Replenishment  and  Over  Lubrication. — After  a  considerable 

period  of  running,  according  to  the  newness  of  the  car,  its  horse¬ 
power,  and  the  work  done,  the  whole  of  the  oil  is  drained  off.  When 
inserting  the  fresh  supply  some  means  should  be  provided  so  that 
the  proper  level  is  known,  but  in  many  cars,  excellent  in  othei  re¬ 
spects,  that  is  simply  ascertained  by  reason  of  the  oil  overflowing. 
A  large  pipe  connected  to  the  crank  chamber  and  whose  top  tallies 
with  the  right  level,  has  been  suggested  as  a  suitable  means  of 
ascertaining  the  right  level,  and  if  such  a  pipe  were  placed  near  the 
front  wing  it  would  be  readily  accessible.  A  float  working  in  a  side 
chamber,  as  with  some  carburettors,  has  been  adopted  and  has  proved 
a  very  useful  fitting  to  those  who  look  for  cleanliness  in  car  operation. 

Over-lubrication  has  to  be  specially  guarded  against  in  the 
cylinder  walls,  because  by  so  doing  oil  may  be  forced  into  the  com¬ 
bustion  chamber,  and  cause  a  smoking  and  unpleasant  exhaust.  An 
excellent  plan  is  to  provide  the  piston  with  an  additional  ring  called 
a  scraper,  or  to  drill  a  number  of  holes  through  the  body  of  the 
lower  portion  or  skirt  of  the  piston,  so  that  the  oil  may  pass  through 
to  the  outside.  Leading  authorities  seem  agreed  on  the  point  that 
it  is  unnecessary  to  lead  oil  direct  to  the  cylinder  wall,  greater 
ingenuity  being  required  to  keep  an  excess  away  from  these  parts. 

Oil  pumps  follow  the  main  principles  of  others  already  described. 
An  effective  pump  giving  a  high  pressure  of  oil  allows  of  the  surface 
so  lubricated  to  be  somewhat  smaller  and  to  wear  longer  than  where 
less  pressure  is  present ;  also  the  oil  leads  are  automatically  kept  free ; 
but  on  the  other  hand  it  demands  that  the  bearings  shall  be  kept 
properly  adjusted,  and  should  the  pump  fail  the  system  is  at  once 
rendered  useless.  However,  as  with  other  parts  of  the  car’s  economy, 
the  progress  in  motor  engineering  has  brought  the  reliability  of  the 
lubrication  system  up  to  a  high  pitch,  and  the  use  of  a  forced-fed 
lubrication  is  partly  or  wholly  the  system  used  in  the  greater  majority 
of  cars  to-day. 

Apart  from  the  fact  that  oil  is  led  to  the  various  engine  bearings 
in  several  ways,  there  is  also  the  question  of  whether  it  shall  be 
used  again  or  the  further  lubrication  depend  on  a  fresh  supply. 


LUBRICATION 


239 


Many  declare  that  oil  once  used  loses  its  lubricating  power,  but  the 
successful  running  of  cars  fitted  with  circulating  systems  hardly 
proves  this  assertion.  The  defenders  of  the  non-circulating  systems 
point  out  that  the  foreign  matter  present  in  the  used  oil  finds  its 
way  to  the  bearing,  and  increases  wear  and  tear,  also  the  straining 
systems  used  to  clarify  the  oil  each  time  it  passes  to  the  crank  case 
are  seldom  effective. 

The  lubrication  of  the  gear  box  may  be  effected  by  means  of  a 
special  oil-lead  from  the  same  tank  as  that  supplying  the  engine, 
but  more  usually  thick  grease  is  employed  which  half  covers  the 
gears,  and  helps  them  to  run  silently.  All  the  mechanism  which 
operates  the  gear  change,  and  is  outside  the  gear  box,  will  require 
lubrication,  such  as  the  quadrant  and  the  trigger  of  the  levers. 

Plate  clutches  of  the  multiple  disc  type  run  in  a  bath  of  specially 
thin  oil,  and  the  clutch  striking  gear,  whatever  its  type,  requires 
periodical  attention.  Lubrication  is  necessary  at  all  points  where 
movement,  however  slight,  takes  place,  and  the  owner  should  at 
once  familiarize  himself  with  the  lubrication  system  of  his  car,  and 
many  admirable  charts  are  furnished  for  this  purpose  for  hanging 
up  in  the  garage. 

Lubricants. — The  oil  used  must  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  suited 
to  the  particular  bearing  and  its  work.  A  good  engine  oil  must  be 
able  to  withstand  the  high  temperature  of  the  internal-combustion 
engine  and  be  uniform  in  quality,  so  that  its  working  powers  may  be 
safely  pre-determined.  One  hears  a  great  deal  about  body  or 
viscosity  of  the  oil,  but  this  in  itself  is  no  indication  of  its  lubricating 
value.  Mineral  oils  obtained  from  similar  sources  to  that  of  motor 
spirit  are  largely  used,  but  the  practice  is  recommended  of  com¬ 
pounding  with  fatty  oils,  as  it  has  been  proved  in  practice  that  the 
mixture  so  obtained  produces  less  wear  and  tear  and  carbon 

deposit. 

Some  motorists  have  tried  graphite  mixed  with  oil  and  found  it 
satisfactory,  but  the  makers  do  not  claim  that  this  substance  is  suit¬ 
able  for  gravity-fed  lubrication  systems.  More  extended  trial  of 
this  substance  would  no  doubt  help  to  establish  the  position  of  this 
lubricant. 

The  parts  which  are  lubricated  with  grease,  such  as  the  spring 
bolts,  steering  joints,  and  other  small  parts,  are  provided  with  a 


2+o  MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 

grease  cup.  The  cap  of  each  of  these  can  be  unscrewed  and  filled 
with  grease,  and  then  brought  into  action  by  a  turn  of  the  milled 
head.  A  turn  once  in  seventy-five  miles  is  usually  sufficient.  The 
differential  case  may  be  filled  with  oil  or  grease  according  to  its 
design ;  the  hind  live  axle  generally  revolves  in  grease,  and  the  front 
axle  arms  are  provided  with  a  similar  means  of  lubrication. 

Even  the  slight  movement  of  the  torque  and  radius  rods  should 
not  be  forgotten,  while  some  joints,  such  as  the  steering  knuckles 
and  universal  joints  of  the  cardan  shaft,  are  enveloped  in  a  leather 
boot  which  is  filled  with  grease. 

The  bearings  of  the  magneto,  commutator,  and  speedometer, 
being  mechanism  of  special  delicacy,  require  oil  more  of  the  character 
of  sewing  machine  oil,  that  is  of  a  vegetable  nature,  and  as  free  as 
possible  from  a  tendency  to  gum  up  and  harden.  Such  a  lubricant 
is  very  suitable  for  ball  and  roller  bearings. 


CHAPTER  XXII 


BRAKES 

A  road  vehicle  which  is  capable  of  proceeding  at  a  high  rate  of 
speed  must  be  provided  with  efficient  brakes,  so  that  its  motion 
may  be  retarded  in  traffic,  and  on  gradients,  and  arrested  in  all 
cases  of  emergency.  Although  the  motor  car  habitually  travels 
quicker  than  a  horsed  equipage,  yet  the  speedier  vehicle  is  under  a 
greater  degree  of  control,  and  can  be  brought  to  a  state  of  rest  in 
less  time  and  space ;  from  which  it  may  be  deduced  that  in  this  case 
mere  speed,  by  itself,  is  not  an  element  of  danger. 

The  use  of  rubber  tyres,  and  the  amount  of  friction  necessary, 
precludes  having  any  device  which  seeks  to  stop  the  car  by  the 
application  of  a  shaped  block  to  the  tyre,  as  with  metal-shod  wheels. 

The  brakes  furnished  may  be  classed  under  the  headings  of 
“  service  ”  and  “  emergency  ”  brakes. 

The  Service  Brake . — The  service  brake  is  that  used  under  normal 
conditions  of  travel,  in  order  to  slow  up  the  car  in  traffic,  at  cross¬ 
roads  and  other  common  events  of  the  road,  such  brake  being 
operated  by  a  pedal  on  the  brake  drums  of  the  rear  wheels,  or,  as  is 
more  usual  with  British  cars,  on  the  transmission  system  by  means 
of  a  drum  supported  at  the  rear  of  the  gear  box,  and  keyed  to  the 
propeller  shaft.  In  some  cases,  the  brake  and  clutch  pedals  are 
interconnected,  so  that  one  motion  of  the  foot  simultaneously  applies 
the  brake  and  cuts  off  the  power  from  the  engine. 

The  Emergency  Brake . — The  emergency  brake  is  operated  by  a 
hand  lever,  found  by  the  side  of  the  change-speed  lever,  and  works 
on  the  wheel  brake  drums,  and  seldom  on  the  transmission  system, 
an  internal  expanding  device  being  the  usual  variety  adopted.  The 
means  for  producing  friction  may  be  either  by  a  contracting  or 
expanding  device,  and  although  both  are  largely  used  there  is  an 

R 


242 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


advantage  in  favour  of  the  internal  expanding  shoes,  since  it  makes 
a  neater  apparatus,  and  one  which  can  be  kept  more  easily  free 
from  mud  and  dust,  and  therefore  more  likely  to  give  satisfaction 
with  but  a  little  attention.  Sometimes  there  is  a  wide  drum  or 
drums  concentric  to  one  another ;  in  a  few  instances  they  are  side 
by  side,  each  having  an  expanding  device  within  them  controlled 
respectively  by  a  pedal  and  hand  lever,  but,  as  a  rule,  if  both  seivice 
and  emergency  brakes  are  attached  to  the  driving  wheels,  the  same 
drum  has  mounted  on  it  both  expanding  and  contracting  shoes,  and 
usually  the  service  brake  is  the  external  one  and  the  emergency 
brake  the  internal. 

An  interesting  movement  is  now  taking  place  in  brake  design,  in 
which  a  pedal-operated  brake  works  on  the  drums  fastened  to  the 
steering  wheels,  and  those  which  have  been  fitted  take  the  place  of 
a  transmission  brake,  that  is  to  say,  when  front  wheel  brakes  are 
used,  the  other  means  of  control  is  confined  to  the  hind  wheels. 

The  hand  lever  may  either  pull  or  push  on,  and  the  former 
method  being  the  more  convenient  it  is  usually  adopted. 

Brake  Friction.— The  ideal  brake  is  one  which  develops  a 
maximum  of  friction,  while  the  heat  which  must  necessarily  be  set 
up  is  quickly  carried  away  by  surface  radiation,  or  by  the  jacketing 
of  the  drum  with  oil  or  water,  so  that  the  surface  in  contact  shall 
not  burn  or  deteriorate  quickly.  Other  desirable  features  looked 
for  are  easy  control  by  the  hand  or  foot,  both  sides  of  the  brake 
working  equally,  means  for  adjustment,  and  general  accessibility. 

The  brake  drum  is  bolted  to  the  swelled  portion  of  the  spokes 
of  an  artillery  wheel  or  may  be  secured  to  the  inner  hub  plate, 
which  is  more  desirable,  and  is  necessary  when  wire  wheels  are 
used.  Generally  speaking,  friction  is  directly  proportional  to  the 
perpendicular  pressure  between  two  surfaces  (if  they  remain  in 
the  same  condition),  it  is  independent  of  the  areas  in  contact,  and 
does  not  depend  on  velocity,  but  these  laws  do  not  hold  good  when 
the  pressure  or  velocity  is  beyond  certain  limits,  neither  are  they 
true  for  rolling  or  axle  friction. 

In  other  parts  of  the  car  lubrication  is  carried  out  to  reduce 
friction ;  here  all  grease  and  oil  will  be  eliminated  as  far  as  possible, 
except  what  is  required  to  prevent  undue  wear  and  tear.  The 
degree  of  friction  also  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  materials  used, 


BRAKES 


243 

and  special  substances  are  available  which  hold  well  and  last  a 
considerable  time. 

Pedals . — Taking  the  service  brake  first,  the  pedal  or  foot  lever 
should  be  within  comfortable  reach,  and  if  different  persons  are 
likely  to  use  the  car,  it  should  be  adjustable  as  to  its  height,  which 
may  easily  be  effected  by  mounting  it  on  a  short  arm  drilled  with 
two  or  three  holes,  while  the  pedal  should  not  have  to  travel  more 
than  4  to  5  ins.  before  it  is  fully  at  work.  At  the  same  time,  the 
tread  should  be  centred  at  the  end  of  the  pedal  lever,  so  that  by 
manipulating  a  nut  the  angle  of  the  pedal  may  also  be  varied  to 
suit  the  height  and  position  of  the  seat.  The  brake  pedal  is  situated 
on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  steering  column  (with  the  clutch  pedal 
on  the  left),  and  varying  types  of  levers  and  rods  transfer  pedal 
movement  into  the  cross  motion  at  the  centre  of  the  car,  if  a 
transmission  brake  is  used,  and  in  addition  some  compensating 
mechanism  will  be  furnished,  if  wheel  brakes  are  used,  so  that  the 
pressure  shall  be  alike  on  either  side  of  the  car.  The  brake  pedal 
lever  is  centred  to  a  cross  shaft,  which  also  carries  the  bearing  of 
the  clutch  pedal. 

The  Transmission  Brake. — The  normal  type  of  transmission 
brake  is  situated  at  the  rear  of  the  gear  box,  and  a  convenient 
centre  for  the  brake  shoes  will  be  by  means  of  a  short  shaft  having 
a  bearing  on  the  bottom  of  the  gear  box,  or  each  shoe  may  have  its 
own  centre  on  a  separate  stud ;  and  usually  the  shoes  work  outside 
the  drum.  This  is  of  pressed  or  cast  steel,  and  from  J\2  in.  to 
^  in.  thick,  and  accurately  turned  if  a  metal  to  metal  brake. 
The  drum  is  keyed  to  the  propeller  shaft,  and  being  forward  of  the 
final  gear  reduction  at  the  rear  axle  bevel  drive,  revolves  faster  than 
the  wheel  brake  drums,  so  that  any  pressure  exerted  on  it  has  a 
greater  controlling  effect.  Cooling  may  be  carried  out  by  ribbing  the 
shoe,  if  an  external  brake,  or  ribbing  the  drum  if  an  internal  one. 

Some  are  of  the  opinion  that  this  brake  is  open  to  the  objection 
that  an  extra  strain  is  thrown  upon  the  transmission  system,  which 
necessitates  it  being  specially  strong.  On  the  other  hand,  with 
reasonable  care  in  driving,  compensation  is  effected  through  the 
differential  gear  without  further  complication,  and  the  whole 
mechanism  is  more  out  of  the  way  of  dust  and  dirt  than  with  side 
brakes.  Should,  however,  the  gear  box  be  situated  by  the  rear  axle 


244  MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 

casing,  as  with  the  Sheffield  Simplex  and  Sizaire  cars,  the  brakes 
are  confined  to  the  road  wheels,  as  the  extra  weight  and  complication 
on  the  back  axle  would  be  undesirable.  To  the  brake  pedal  lever  is 
attached  the  connecting  rod,  which  being  used  only  to  exert  a  pul  mg 
action  may  be  light  in  substance,  while  according  to  the  style  ot 
brake,  so  the  operating  crank  levers  and  its  mounting  will  var}. 

It  is  considered  the  best  practice  to  attach  the  fulcrum  to  t  e 
adjacent  subsidiary  member  of  the  frame,  but  if  this  is  not  done, 
the  fixing  to  the  gear  box  must  be  strongly  carried  out  with  a  .view 
to  maintaining  the  correct  working  of  the  brake,  without  straining 
the  gear  box.  Sometimes  the  connecting  rod  will  impart  a  trans¬ 
verse  movement  through  a  vertical  pivot,  or,  may  be,  the  pull  wi 
transmit  a  slight  turning  movement  so  that  hook  clutch  draw  s  t  re 
two  shoes  towards  one  another.  In  one  instance  the  mechanism 
immediately  operating  the  shoes  is  through  bevel  gear. 

The  pivoting  of  the  brake  shoes  may  be  either  at  the  top, 
bottom,  or  side,  while  the  drum  itself  may  be  cast  with  spokes.  A 
wide  braking  surface,  although  not  increasing  the  power,  enhances 
the  wearing  capacity,  and  it  is  usual  to  insert  one  of  the  main  shaft 
universal  joints  within  the  drum.  As  the  brake  shoes  wear  they 
should  be  capable  of  simple  adjustment  by  a  fly  nut,  or  by  an 
ordinary  nut  and  spanner.  The  brake  is  released  by  a  helical  spring 

anchored  at  one  end  to  the  drum. 

The  motion  is  imparted  from  one  shoe  to  the  other  by  a  tension 

rod,  which  must  be  kept  up  to  its  work  by  the  adjustment  provided. 
Those  who  dislike  the  idea  of  a  transmission  brake  being  continually 
in  use  have  the  option  of  purchasing  cars  in  which  the  usual 
practice  is  reversed ;  that  is,  the  service  brakes  are  foot-operated  m 
the  ordinary  manner,  but  connected  to  the  road  wheel  drums,  and 
the  emergency  brake  is  controlled  by  a  side  lever  working  a  type  of 
brake  as  just  described.  The  Daimler  car  is  fitted  up  in  this  way, 
the  transmission  brake  being  a  band,  and  not  a  double  shoe  brake. 

The  transmission  brake  has  the  simplest  mechanism  when  it  lies 
close  to  the  pedal  rolling  bar,  and  on  those  cars  which  are  assembled 
with  the  gear  box  bolted  direct  to  the  engine  and  clutch  case  as  one 
unit,  a  fulcrum  and  lever  can  be  made  to  act  directly  on  the  end  of 

the  rolling  bar. 

Apart  from  the  question  of  design,  there  are  differences  of 


BRAKES 


245 


opinion  as  to  the  material  which  is  to  be  used.  Theoretically,  the 
best  substances  to  use  for  the  contacting  surfaces  are  those  which 
grip  easily,  that  is,  have  a  high  coefficient  of  friction.  It  has  been 
proved  that  mixtures  of  metal  and  cork,  leather  or  fibre,  on  a  dry 
metal  surface,  adhere  better  than  if  the  non-metallic  elements  are 
used  alone,  and  the  results  go  to  show  that  fibre  makes  the  best 
braking  substance  in  conjunction  with  a  metal,  and  the  presence  of 
oil  does  not  destroy  the  holding  power  of  the  brake  as  much  as 
might  be  supposed,  and  it  allows  the  apparatus  to  act  more  gently, 
for  fierce  working  is  not  a  feature  to  be  sought,  owing  to  the  strains 
which  would  be  set  up,  apart  from  the  fact  that  locking  of  the  wheels 
would  take  place,  which  is  disastrous  to  the  tyres,  and  a  hindrance 
to  the  stopping  of  the  car.  A  brake,  as  its  name  implies,  should 
retard  the  car  only,  and  is  not  intended  to  arrest  it  suddenly.  The 
oil  also  preserves  and  cools,  but  should  any  leather  lining  become 
charred,  the  power  of  the  brake  is  considerably  reduced. 

Brake  linings  consist  of  asbestos  and  brass  wire  interwoven,  and 
this  material  has  been  found  to  work  satisfactorily  under  the  most 
arduous  conditions  and  for  the  heaviest  vehicles. 

The  Brake  Lever  and  its  Connections. — The  side  brakes  are,  as 
pointed  out,  usually  of  the  internal  expanding  type.  The  brake 
lever  is  centred  on  a  bracket  bolted  to  the  chassis  side  membei,  and 
is  provided  with  a  trigger  by  the  side  of  the  handle,  which  is  in 
connection  with  a  pawl  which  engages  with  the  teeth  of  a  brake 
rack  below.  The  brake  lever  is  usually  the  outer  one  ;  in  the  Deasy 
car  it  is  inside,  while  the  ideal  position  is  in  the  centre  of  the  frame, 
although  it  means  a  left-hand  control,  yet  it  would  make  a  simplei 
job  of  the  equal  application  of  the  side  brakes. 

The  pulling  or  pushing  of  the  lever  into  engagement  allows  the 
pawl  to  run  over  the  teeth  in  the  rack,  and  is  held  tlieie  until 
released  by  pulling  the  trigger  towards  the  handle.  The  range  of 
the  brake  lever  varies  from  7  ins.  to  12  ins.,  and,  so  far,  few  brake 
racks  are  enclosed,  but  it  is  a  detail  which  improves  the  appearance 
and  keeps  out  the  dirt.  The  rolling  bar,  to  which  the  lever  is 
fastened,  has  also  attached  to  it  the  cranks,  from  which  proceed  the 
connecting  or  side  rods  to  the  rear  of  the  frame.  It  is  claimed 
that  rods  with  well-designed  joints  are  preferable  to  cables,  as  these 
have  to  take  up  very  quick  curves  in  passing  over  the  guide  pulleys, 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


246 

yet  at  the  same  time  this  flexible  system  is  more  easily  compensated. 
There  are  several  moving  parts,  even  in  the  simplest  pattern  of 
brake,  and  although  the  work  done  by  the  several  joints  is  very 
little  in  comparison  to  that  of  the  engine  parts,  yet  each  bearing 
should  be  lubricated  by  a  small  grease  cup,  which  will  only  require 
attention,  say,  once  a  month,  and  should  have  hardened  steel  pins 
and  bushes  which  may  be  easily  renewed.  Worn  brakework  is  the 
cause  of  much  rattling. 

In  choosing  a  car,  the  position  of  the  various  parts  of  the  brake 
mechanism  should  be  noted,  to  see  that  a  fair  amount  of  clearance 
is  allowed  from  the  other  parts  of  the  car,  so  that  there  is  no  likeli¬ 
hood  of  any  chattering  being  set  up  in  this  way,  which  will  often 
happen,  say,  at  the  rear  axle  casing  after  prolonged  wear. 

The  Internal  Expanding  Wheel  Brake . — This  consists  of  a  pair  of 
metal  shoes,  sometimes  of  pressed  steel  or  manganese  bronze,  to 
which  are  riveted  cast-iron  plates,  which,  when  worn,  may  be  re¬ 
newed,  or,  if  of  cast  iron  entirely,  the  whole  shoe  is  replaced.  The 
two  shoes  are  hinged  to  a  special  bracket  on  the  axle  sleeves,  and  a 
cam,  more  or  less  of  lozenge  shape,  is  mounted  between  the  free 
ends,  which,  when  turned  by  the  action  of  the  fulcrum,  forces  the 
two  shoe  ends  further  apart,  so  pressing  the  cast  iron  surfaces 
against  the  inner  face  of  the  brake  drum.  The  shoes  are  normally 
kept  out  of  contact  with  the  drum  by  means  of  the  usual  helical 
spring,  which  may  be  duplicated  and  anchored  across  corresponding 
points  of  each  shoe,  or  to  the  body  of  the  drum.  The  Wolseley  car 
has  a  flat  horseshoe-shaped  spring,  which  gives  a  powerful  return, 
and  is  not  affected  in  its  action  by  mud  and  little  by  rust. 

Adjustment  is  carried  out  by  shortening  or  lengthening  the 
connecting  rods,  a  turnbuckle  being  provided  for  this  purpose,  care 
being  taken  to  adjust  each  side  alike.  These  adjustments  are  made 
easier  if  self-locking  thumbscrews  are  provided  at  the  back  ends  of 
the  pull  rods. 

The  shoes  must  be  free  from  the  drums  when  not  in  use,  other¬ 
wise  they  will  drag  and  set  up  heat  and  noise.  In  place  of  two 
shoes,  a  single  flexible  band  is  centred  on  the  drum  as  before,  which 
is  expanded  by  a  toggle  joint,  which  straightens  up  when  the  hand 
lever  is  applied.  These  brakes  may  also  be  adjusted  by  taking  up 
the  side  rods,  and  by  taking  up  part  of  the  .  toggle  joint,  but  it 


BRAKES 


247 


is  necessary  to  remove  the  wheel  before  this  can  be  done.  With 
the  hinged  shoe  type  of  brake,  the  two  contacting  surfaces  when 
out  of  engagement  form  practically  concentric  circles,  so  that  when 
the  brake  is  brought  into  play  the  shoe  cannot  possibly  touch  all 
round  the  drum  to  the  same  extent.  The  pressure  exerted  is 
greatest  where  the  shoe  first  touches,  which  is,  of  course,  near  the 
hinge  and  away  from  the  cam. 

Compensating  Devices. — As  with  the  pedal- operated  brake,  the 
power  is  applied  at  one  side  of  the  car,  and  as  the  wheel  brakes  are 
on  both  sides,  some  compensating  arrangement  is  wanted,  so  that 
both  brakes  shall  be  applied  with  equal  force.  The  Rolls-Royce 
ear  has  a  small  differential  gear  fitted  so  that  both  service  and 
emergency  brakes  are  equipped  alike.  A  more  ordinary  way  is  to 
have  an  evener  or  balance  bar,  to  the  centre  of  which  is  brought 
the  brake  rod  or  cable,  while  the  ends  work  in  slides  attached  to  the 
insides  of  the  web  of  the  frame,  and  have  fastened  to  them  the 
connection  to  the  fulcrums  on  each  side.  The  wire  cable  compen¬ 
sates  simply  by  one  end  being  attached  to  each  brake,  the  cable 
running  through  a  hollow  shaft  to  which  the  brake  lever  is  fastened, 
so  that  when  this  is  operated  the  cable  can  slide  through  and  adjust 
itself  to  the  pressure  applied  at  either  end  of  the  cable. 

A  shorter  balance  bar  may  also  be  used ;  while  with  the  W  eight 
hydraulic  brake,  a  pedal  actuates  a  small  plunger  pump,  the 
pressure  being  transmitted  to  all  four  wheels  through  flexible  pipes 
containing  oil. 

Double  Action.— A  brake  should  be  double  acting,  that  is,  control 
the  car  equally  well  in  both  directions,  the  backward  braking  being 
of  vital  importance  when  ascending  hills.  This  is  provided  for  when 
the  band  is  attached  to  a  fixed  centre  half-way  round  the  circum¬ 
ference  of  the  drum,  that  is,  to  be  double  acting  the  band  must  have 
an  independent  portion  for  each  direction,  and  all  shoe  brakes  are 
now  fitted  in  this  way,  either  from  a  common  or  separate  centres. 

The  proper  use  of  the  brakes  forms  an  important  feature  of 
good  driving.  They  should  be  used  as  little  as  possible,  and  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  throttle  lever  is  always  available 
for  slowing  down  the  car  with  the  least  possible  wear  and  tear, 
while  the  disengagement  of  the  clutch  also  assists  in  this  way. 
Keeping  the  clutch  in  will  help  to  control  the  car  should  there  be 


248 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


any  danger  of  it  running  backwards  on  a  hill,  and  in  the  absence  of 
the  old-fashioned  sprag  some  cars  are  fitted  with  a  pawl  and  rachet 
wheel  at  the  back  of  the  gear  box,  which  cannot  be  “  jumped  over,” 
as  with  a  sprag. 

Front  Wheel  Brakes. — Front  wheel  brakes  came  first  into 
prominence  at  the  1909  Olympia  show,  and  have  been  fitted  to 
horse  carriages  as  long  back  as  1896.  These  brakes,  so  far,  have 
been  fitted  to  such  cars  as  the  Adams,  Argyll,  Arrol- Johnston, 
Crossley,  Spyker,  and  Thames,  and  are  pedal-operated  service 
brakes.  The  chief  advantage  claimed  for  them  is  freedom  from 
side  slip,  which  is  always  probable  with  driving-wheel  brakes,  and 
should  the  wheels  encounter  a  greasy  surface  they  are  free  to  move 
in  any  direction.  Supposing  the  front  wheels  to  be  locked,  what¬ 
ever  direction  the  car  takes  the  freely  revolving  hind  wheels  must 
follow,  but  if  the  hind  wheels  are  locked  the  tendency  will  be  for 
them  to  reverse  the  direction  of  the  car,  and  trail  the  steering 
wheels.  Front-wheel  brakes  remove  any  objection  which  may  be 
raised  to  the  strain  of  a  transmission  brake ;  they  are  more 
accessible  than  the  other  types  used,  and  by  their  forward  position 
are  naturally  cooled.  Special  allowance  has  to  be  made,  however, 
so  that  the  steering  is  interfered  with  as  little  as  possible ;  also 
compensation  is  required,  allowance  for  spring  action,  and  move¬ 
ment  of  the  stub  axles.  The  extra  torsional  stress  which  is  thrown 
on  the  front  axle  and  springs  should  be  provided  for  by  using 
a  stiffer  section,  or  adopting  one  of  circular  pattern,  and  radius  rods 
should  be  attached  so  that  there  is  a  minimum  of  end  compression 
on  the  spring  plates.  The  brake  shoes  or  band  must  work  from  the 
same  centre,  or  one  concentric  to  the  axis  of  the  steering  pivot,  and 
it  is  necessary  to  have  the  steering  centre  and  the  vertical  axis  of 
the  wheel  meeting  as  near  as  possible  at  the  point  of  contact  of  the 
tyre  with  the  road,  so  that  the  strain  on  the  steering  gear  is  low, 
and  less  likely  to  affect  the  braking  mechanism  attached  to  the 
front  wheels. 

When  the  wheels  are  so  pivoted,  they  do  not  tend  to  roll  round 
into  a  new  position,  and  theoretically  the  steering  should  be 
unaffected,  but  as  the  road  contact  is  not  a  point,  some  strain  is 
sure  to  be  present.  This  is  often  done  on  cars  having  no  front- 
wheel  brakes,  where  it  is  not  essential  but  a  refinement.  It  is  done 


BRAKES 


249 


by  inclining  the  steering  pivot  centre  to  meet  the  centre  line  of  the 
dished  wheel,  or  by  placing  the  pivot  right  inside  the  hub.  The 
brake  drum  has  to  be  rigidly  attached  to  the  stub  axle,  which 
entails  radical  alteration  from  the  usual  mounting  of  the  wheel,  in 
which  the  stub  axle  is  hollow,  and  a  short  pin  fastened  to  the  hub 

revolves  inside  it. 

Most  of  the  brakes  used  are  internal  expanding.  The  Crossley 
has  four  shoes,  each  working  on  its  own  rock  shaft;  the  Argyll 
brake  has  the  operating  shaft  carried  through  a  ball  and  socket 
joint  on  the  frame ;  the  Arrol- Johnston  has  the  brake  shoe  expanded 
by  gear  segments ;  while  Bowden  wires  simplify  the  mechanism  of 
the  Adams  device. 

As  the  front  wheel  brakes  are  much  exposed,  the  enclosed 
expanding  type  would  appear  to  be  the  most  suitable.  Detachable 
wheels  can  be  fitted,  if  desired. 

Brakes  should  be  constructed  with  a  fair  margin  of  strength,  as 
the  safety  of  the  passengers  will  depend  on  the  effective  control  of 
the  car  under  all  emergencies ;  and  as  many  cars  travel  far  and 
wide,  over  strange  roads,  long  hills  are  often  encountered  which 
will  try  the  brakes  to  their  utmost.  When  driving  a  strange  car,  it 
is  a  measure  of  precaution  to  examine  the  brakes. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 


THE  STEERING  GEAR 

The  Ackermann  Axle—  The  steering  of  the  car  is  directly  under 
the  control  of  the  driver,  and  is  effected  by  means  of  the  two  arms, 
hub  spindles,  or  stub  axles  of  the  front  axle  bed  being  pivoted. 
This  jointed  axle,  known  as  the  Ackermann  axle,  was  invented 
nearly  one  hundred  years  ago,  but  it  has  never  been  adopted  to  any 
extent,  nevertheless  the  motor  car  manufacturer  at  once  saw  in  it  a 
means  whereby  increased  stability  over  the  central  perch  bolt  system 
could  be  obtained,  coupled  with  the  advantage  that  it  was  eminently 
suited  to  the  low  and  forward  position  of  an  accessible  engine. 

The  Steering  Mechanism. — The  mechanism  consists  of  a  steering 
wheel,  either  of  wood,  wood  and  leather,  or  celluloid  (which  is 
cleaner  but  inflammable)  covering  a  metal  casting,  consisting  of  a 
rim  and  spokes,  which  is  centred  on,  and  attached  to,  a  steering 
pillar  running  in  a  casing,  often  brass  or  nickel -plated,  attached  to 
the  dashboard.  The  internal  pillar,  continuing  forwards  and  down¬ 
ward,  terminates  in  a  short  worm,  usually  separate  and  afterwards 
attached,  the  threads  of  which  engage  with  the  teeth  of  a  sector 
running  on  a  short  cross-shaft  mounted  in  a  steering  box  bolted  to 
the  side  member  of  the  frame.  In  place  of  a  worm  and  sector,  the 
former  may  engage  with  a  nut,  or  a  bevel  and  crown  wheel  may  be 
adopted,  or  in  place  of  a  sector,  a  whole  pinion  may  be  used  so  that 
the  few  teeth  which  normally  engage  may  be  turned  round  as  they 
wear,  and  a  fresh  set  presented  to  the  worm. 

From  the  spindle,  which  receives  motion  from  the  sector,  a  short 
vertical  lever  is  attached,  whose  lower  end  forms  part  of  a  ball  and 
socket  joint.  The  smaller  part  of  the  lever,  just  above  the  ball, 
passes  into  the  split  socket  of  the  longitudinal  steering  rod  by 
means  of  a  slot,  while  the  end  motion  and  vibration  is  absorbed  by 


THE  STEERING  GEAR 


251 


means  of  strong  spiral  springs  abutting  on  the  two  halves  of  the 
socket.  The  longitudinal  rod  runs  forward  and  is  attached  to  the 
steering  arm,  which  is  secured  to,  or  may  form  part  of,  the  knuckle 
pin  and  stub  axle  on  the  same  side.  The  steering  arm  continues 
forward  and  is  fastened  to  the  transverse  connecting  rod,  which 
joins  it  to  a  similar  front  portion  of  steering  arm  on  the  near  side, 
thereby  ensuring  that  the  two  stub  axles  shall  move  simultaneously. 

The  Design  of  the  Ball  Joint  and  Steering  Ann. — A  well-designed 
ball  joint  should  allow  of  plenty  of  wearing  surface,  and  if  lightly 
constructed  some  type  of  safety  pin  may  be  rendered  necessary  in 
order  to  prevent  the  ball  from  working  through  the  slot  above 
owing  to  excessive  wear,  but  with  occasional  inspection  and  the 
maintenance  of  proper  lubrication,  such  a  state  of  affairs  should  be 
an  impossibility.  With  regard  to  the  steering  arm,  it  is  the  practice 
of  some  makers  to  stamp  this,  together  with  the  knuckle  or  pin  and 
stub  axle,  all  in  one  piece,  afterwards  bending  them  to  the  proper 
shape ;  but  the  all-in-one  design  seldom  allows  for  sufficient  strength 
in  all  the  various  parts,  and  is  more  expensive  to  renew.  It  is  a 
better  plan  for  the  steering  arm  to  be  quite  separate,  provided  with 
means  for  passing  through  and  fitting  well  into  a  conical  hole,  and 
keyed  to  the  steering  knuckle  and  designed  at  the  front  and  rear  for 
attachment  to  the  connecting  and  longitudinal  rods  respectively. 
The  main  or  bed  portion  of  the  axle  has  jaws  so  as  to  embrace  the 
two  ends  of  the  horizontal  knuckle  or  pivot,  and  roller  or  ball  bear¬ 
ings  are  provided  in  the  upper  half  so  that  lubrication  can  be 
carried  out  with  a  minimum  of  attention.  In  place  of  a  jaw,  the 
axle  pivot  may  be  embraced  by  a  coned  cap,  which  is  a  somewhat 
stronger  connection,  and  gives  a  maximum  of  bearing  surface, 
although  it  means  more  weight  and  expense.  The  steering  gear 
and  its  connections  should  be  well  designed  and  accurately  fitted, 
otherwise  much  vibration  and  noise  is  set  up,  the  former  detracting 
from  the  comfort  of  the  driver,  being  directly  communicated  to  him 
through  the  wheel.  Lubrication  of  some  of  the  points  is  often 
carried  out  by  leather  boots  filled  with  grease,  but  these  need  to  be 
well  fitted  in  order  to  do  their  work  properly.  Lubricators  of  the 
Stauffer  type  should  be  fitted  whenever  possible,  and,  as  with  the 
stub  axle  and  its  surrounding  box,  wear  and  tear  is  reduced  to  a 
minimum  if  the  pins  and  sockets,  worm  and  sector  are  case- 


252 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


hardened,  or  some  type  of  easily  renewable  bushing  is  inserted. 
Badly  fitted  steering  gear,  or  a  type  difficult  to  adjust,  means  greater 
wear  on  the  tyres  owing  to  the  unequal  dragging  effect  when  the 
wheel  is  operated. 

Wheel  Lock. — The  Ackermann  type  of  axle,  seeing  that  only  two 
short  stub  axles  are  moved,  allows  of  greater  stability  of  the  fore¬ 
structure,  apart  from  its  lower  centre  of  gravity,  than  the  horse- 
carriage  method,  therefore  greater  speeds  are  permissible.  A  full 
lock  or  complete  turning  circle  of  the  fore-carriage  is  impossible,  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  height  of  the  frame  from  the  ground  is  not 
dependent  on  the  diameter  of  the  front  wheels,  although,  curiously 
enough,  the  average  height  of  front  wheel  of  a  car  is  less  than  that 
of  the  normal  brougham  or  landau  front  wheel,  the  size  being 
dependent  on  other  considerations  as  well. 

The  wheel  lock  is  given  as  great  a  latitude  as  possible  by  narrow¬ 
ing  in  the  frame  in  front  of  the  dashboard,  where  the  side  travel 
takes  place,  while  in  some  axles  this  may  be  assisted  by  throwing 
back  slightly  the  centre  of  the  knuckle  from  the  centre  line  of  the 
axle.  The  full  range  of  the  lock  should  he  controlled  by  less  than  a 
complete  revolution  of  the  steering  wheel.  When  the  car  is  follow¬ 
ing  a  curved  path,  the  longitudinal  axes  of  the  front  wheels  should 
both  be  at  right  angles  to  the  radii  of  concentric  circles,  and  not 
from  centres  of  circles  having  equal  radii.  This  common  centre 
should  be  situated  on  a  line  produced  from  the  centre  line  of  the 
hind  axle,  so  that  the  car,  in  turning,  pivots  from  one  centre  only, 
diminishing,  as  much  as  possible,  any  unequal  strain  on  the  front 
tyres.  The  stub  axles  are  set  to  this  common  centre  by  making 
the  distance  between  the  steering  pivots  so  much  less  than  the 
length  of  the  connecting  rod  of  the  steering  arms.  This  connecting 
rod  may  be  placed  either  in  front  or  behind  the  front  axle  bed.  If 
outside,  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  it  does  not  interfere  with  the 
starting  handle,  or  come  too  close  to  the  spokes ;  and,  if  inside,  in 
the  way  of  the  crank  chamber  and  not  inaccessible.  In  this  position, 
however,  it  is  out  of  the  way  of  possible  collision. 

Steering  Wheels  and  Tillers. — Wheel  steering  is  universally 
adopted  by  motor  car  manufacturers,  as  only  a  slight  movement  of 
the  wheel  is  required  to  give  a  comparatively  large  turning  move¬ 
ment  to  the  front  wheels,  and  if  a  fair-sized  wheel  of  some  16  ins.  is 


THE  STEERING  GEAR 


253 


used,  the  comfort  of  driving  is  increased,  owing  to  the  extra  leverage 
obtained,  and  therefore  less  effort  required.  This  is  not  entirely 
dependent  on  the  size  of  the  wheel,  but  the  design  and  excellence  of 
fitting  and  lubrication  of  the  several  parts  all  contribute  to  the 
exertion  required  to  steer  the  car  in  the  desired  path.  Tiller 
steering,  something  after  the  bath-chair  fashion,  was  largely 
adopted  in  earlier  cars,  and  it  had  the  advantage  of  allowing  a  free 
entrance  to  the  driving  seat ;  but  now  that  more  than  one  pattern 
of  hinged  steering  wheel  has  been  placed  on  the  market,  this 
superiority  does  not  remain,  but  a  free  passage  on  either  side  of  the 
car  is  also  decided  by  the  lever  position,  and  steps  have  been  taken 
by  some  makers  to  so  place  the  gear  and  brake  control  that  a  more 
suitable  position,  from  the  owner’s  point  of  view,  is  obtained. 

Steering  Column  Angle . — One  difference  between  the  car  of 
yesterday  and  that  of  to-day  is  the  angle  of  the  steering  column. 
The  racing  cars,  of  which  so  many  were  built  during  the  days  of  the 
Gordon-Bennett  and  other  famous  road  races,  were  largely  fitted  with 
columns  having  a  decided  rake,  in  contra  distinction  to  the  more 
upright  type  of  the  contemporary  touring  car.  It  was  considered 
that  such  a  pattern  gave  the  driver  more  control  over  the  direction 
of  his  car,  and  at  the  same  time  placed  him  in  a  more  comfortable 
position,  provided  a  suitably  designed  seat  and  padding  were  at  his 
disposal.  The  raked  column  of  to-day  is  largely  the  outcome  of  a 
desire  to  give  the  car  a  sporting  appearance,  while  the  lower  seats 
which  have  become  necessary  have  been  found  by  many  more  com¬ 
fortable  for  long  journeys,  although  they  may  not  conduce  to 

sight-seeing. 

Adjustable  Columns— A  raked  steering  column  generally  means 
that  five  or  six  extra  inches  are  demanded  from  the  useful  body 
space,  although  it  would  appear  possible  to  incline  the  column,  and 
still  keep  the  same  overall  length  from  the  dash  to  the  back  of  the 
steering  wheel  for  those  who  do  not  require  the  low  seat.  A 
refinement,  adopted  on  some  cars,  is  to  hinge  the  column  at  the 
dashboard,  so  that  varying  angles  may  be  given  to  suit  different 
drivers  and  types  of  bodies.  It  should  be  possible  to  give  in  cars 
of  the  future  any  desired  angle  to  the  column,  within  reasonable 
limits,  and  also  to  vary  the  length  of  the  column  protruding  from 
the  dashboard. 


254 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


A  fracture  of  any  part  of  the  steering  gear,  especially  when  the 
car  is  travelling  at  a  high  speed,  is  liable  to  cause  a  serious  accident, 
so  that  one  should  carefully  examine  the  robustness  of  this  portion 
of  a  car,  more  so  a  second-hand  one,  before  purchasing. 

Irreversible  Steering. — The  worm  and  sector  mechanism  provides 
what  may  be  regarded  as  an  irreversible  steering ;  that  is,  the  road 
wheels  may  be  moved  by  the  hand  wheel,  but  not  vice  versa ,  which 
is  owing  to  the  threads  of  the  worm  being  practically  at  right  angles 
to  the  thrust  of  the  sector  teeth.  Usually,  however,  a  slight  back 
lash  is  present,  which,  if  within  limits,  relieves  the  steering  and  the 
driver’s  hands  and  arms  from  small  shocks.  A  perfectly  rigid 
steering  would  mean  that  the  front  tyres,  encountering  the  slightest 
obstacle,  would  transmit  a  corresponding  shock  to  the  wheel  in  its 
endeavour  to  turn  it. 

A  reversible  steering  can  be  had  if  a  crown  and  bevel  wheel  is 
used,  but  the  lessened  strain  thereby  present  would  be  an  element 
of  danger,  and  likely  to  force  the  wheel  out  of  the  driver’s  hands  at 
any  incautious  moment. 

Bight-  and  Left-hand  Controls. — The  position  of  the  steering  is 
always  on  the  off  or  right  side  of  British  cars,  where  the  rule  of  the 
road  is  to  keep  to  the  left-hand  side ;  but  on  some  Continental  cars 
and  several  of  American  manufacture,  where  the  right-hand  side  of 
the  road  is  the  right  side  in  another  sense  as  well,  the  left-hand 
control  has  been  adopted,  but  in  a  few  instances  the  levers  are  still 
on  the  right-hand  side,  which,  in  this  case,  is  the  centre  of  the  car. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  “  right  ”-side-of-the-road  countries,  some 
drivers  prefer  their  seat  to  be  on  the  corresponding  near  side, 
since  they  are  better  able  to  keep  the  car  well  clear  of  ditches  and 
other  pitfalls  on  the  edge  of  bad  roads,  while  the  left-hand  driving 
position,  helps  these  motorists  to  judge  the  clearance  between  their 
own  vehicles  and  those  approaching  from  an  opposite  direction. 

While  these  pages  have  been  passing  through  the  press,  the 
French  rule  of  the  road  has  been  altered  so  that  it  is  now  the  same 
as  on  British  roads. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 


WHEELS 

The  Function  of  Road  Wheels. — Road  wheels  transfer  the  road 
friction  from  their  circumference  to  a  centre  which  is  well  fitted 
and  lubricated.  Each  spoke  acts  as  a  lever  working  round  a  common 
fulcrum,  and  the  larger  the  wheel,  and  the  smaller  the  axle,  the 
higher  the  mechanical  efficiency ;  but  wheel  diameter  is  largely 
restricted  by  the  general  design,  and  that  of  the  axle  by  the  neces¬ 
sary  strength  required. 

The  wheels  support  between  them  the  whole  weight  of  the  car 
and  its  load,  and  have  to  withstand  the  strains  and  stresses  of 
steering  in  front,  the  final  drive  of  the  transmission  system  at  the 
rear,  the  various  shocks  from  the  inequalities  of  the  road,  and  also 
the  braking  and  skidding  of  the  car. 

They  must,  therefore,  be  thoroughly  well  designed  and  pro¬ 
portioned,  and  the  quality  of  material  and  workmanship  must  be  of 
the  highest  class,  if  they  are  to  give  satisfaction  for  any  length 
of  time. 

The  wheel  of  the  horse-drawn  carriage  is  made  of  oak  or  hickory 
spokes,  tenoned  into  the  mortices  of  an  elm  hub,  and  tanged  into 
ash  or  hickory  felloes  or  rims.  For  heavier  classes  of  wheels  oak 
is  used  for  the  hub,  nave  or  stock,  and  various  strengthening 
devices  in  the  shape  of  hub  bands,  cut  out  to  receive  the  spoke 
tenons,  are  utilized  in  all  classes  of  wheels,  while  the  size  and 
number  of  the  various  parts  are  increased  according  to  the  esti¬ 
mated  load. 

The  Artillery  Wheel. — For  the  greater  majority  of  motor 
vehicles  the  artillery  wheel,  as  used  on  all  types  of  military  car¬ 
riages,  has  been  modified.  This  pattern  does  away  with  a  wooden 
hub  cut  away  to  a  mere  shell,  and  the  inner  ends  of  the  spokes  are 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


256 

mitred  so  that  they  all  fit  tightly  together  to  form  a  solid  centre, 
being  arranged  around  an  axle  box,  and  held  together  by  an  inner 
and  outer  flange,  the  inner  one  being  shrunk  on  to  the  box,  the 
whole  being  held  together  by  bolts  passing  through  from  back  to 
front.  Most  artillery  wheel  spokes  are  tanged  into  a  wooden  rim, 
but  although  this  appears  to  answer  well  in  service,  it  would  be  a 
better  plan  to  butt  the  spoke  ends  on  to  the  rim,  and  hold  them 
there  by  a  suitably  flanged  collar,  the  two  retaining  screws  of  which 
would  be  less  weakening  than  the  tang  hole. 

Wheels  being  required  in  large  quantities  and  at  reasonable 
prices,  machinery  enters  largely  into  their  manufacture,  a  process 
which,  with  wooden  wheels,  does  not  always  guarantee  sound  stuff 
being  used  throughout,  for  where  a  workman  using  his  hand  tool 
is  naturally  in  a  better  position  to  notice  the  nature  of  the  wood  he 
is  shaping,  a  machine  simply  does  the  work  it  is  set  to  do,  and  does 
not  hesitate  to  proceed  if  the  timber  reveals  any  unsoundness.  The 
greater  speed  at  which  the  work  is  done  is  also  a  factor  meaning 
less  inspection  by  the  machinist,  or  the  rejection  by  those  re¬ 
sponsible  of  faulty  spokes  or  rims.  The  introduction  of  the  solid 
rubber  tyre  in  carriage  wheel  construction  not  only  had  the  effect 
of  lengthening  the  life  of  the  wheel,  but  also  of  the  body,  so  that 
with  the  more  resilient  pneumatic  tyre  there  is  no  doubt  that  some 
badly  made  wheels  last  longer  than  they  would  if  shod  with  iron 
tyres. 

Wheel  Making. — Ash  felloes  should  be  naturally  seasoned,  being 
cut  roughly  to  shape  as  mentioned  with  the  pillars  and  other  framing 
in  the  chapter  on  body  making.  A  felloe  is  that  portion  of  the 
wheel  circumference  which  receives  two  spokes  only ;  rims  or  half 
rims  embrace  half  the  number  of  spokes  of  a  wheel,  and  have  to  be 
bent  by  steam.  The  oak  spokes  should  be  cleft,  that  is,  split  with 
the  grain,  but  they  are  sometimes  sawn  out  of  the  plank  to  save 
expense.  The  spoke  is  cut  to  length,  and  has  the  mitres  cut  in  a 
mitreing  machine  under  a  band  saw.  The  body  of  the  spoke  is 
then  shaped  on  a  copying  lathe,  the  operation  being  under  the 
guidance  of  a  roller  which  travels  over  the  surface  of  an  iron 
dummy  spoke,  a  separate  dummy  being  used  for  every  different 
size  and  shape  required.  The  spoke  is  then  finished  off  on  a  glass 
papering  belt,  so  as  to  prepare  it  for  painting,  after  which  the 


WHEELS 


25  7 


round  tang  is  cut  for  the  joint  with  the  felloe.  The  felloe  is  then 
planed  on  each  side,  cut  to  the  right  sweep  and  correct  angle  at  the 
ends,  and  drilled  to  receive  the  tangs.  All  these  operations  will  be 
performed  on  specially  designed  machines  capable  of  adjustment  so 
that  a  wheel  of  any  size  or  number  of  spokes  is  automatically 
arranged  for.  After  the  spokes  are  assembled,  the  felloes  are 
hammered  on  and  the  whole  squeezed  up  in  a  machine,  the  outer 
faces  trimmed  up  finally,  white  lead  and  linseed  oil  being  used  at 
the  joints. 

The  tyre  channel  is  cut  to  length,  the  amount  required  being 
found  by  running  an  iron  disc,  called  a  traveller,  mounted  in  a 
forked  handle,  round  the  rim,  a  mark  being  made  so  that  the  point 
of  starting  is  known.  Allowances  are  made  for  the  thickness  of  the 
metal  and  the  weld.  The  joints  of  the  felloes  are  left  slightly  open 
at  the  top,  so  that,  as  the  channel  contracts  in  cooling,  they  are 
brought  together  into  a  perfect  butt  joint,  which  is  also  held 
together  by  a  wooden  dowel.  The  channel  is  shaped  in  the  rolls 
of  a  bender,  and  welded  either  with  a  butt  or  scarfed  joint 
into  a  complete  circle.  The  whole  channel  is  then  heated,  and, 
while  hot,  laid  over  the  new  wheel,  and  quickly  lowered  into  a 
tank  of  water  so  that  the  tyre  naturally  shrinks,  and  holds  all 
together  firmly. 

Some  charring  of  the  rim  is  inevitable,  though  not  to  a 
detrimental  extent ;  but  for  those  who  desire  a  cold  process,  the 
channel  may  be  contracted  by  hydraulic  pressure. 

The  heating  of  the  tyre  may  be  in  a  wood  or  coal  fire,  and  the 
welding  is  often  done  electrically. 

The  channel  is  bored  to  receive  the  screws  which  assist  in  hold¬ 
ing  it  to  the  rim,  and  also  for  the  passage  of  the  tyre  security  bolts 
and  valve,  if  pneumatic  tyres  are  to  be  used,  while  the  centre  is  cut 
out  for  the  axle  box,  and  bored  for  the  retaining  bolts.  Considering 
the  pressure  which  is  placed  upon  the  woodwork  when  the  tyre  is 
put  on,  and  the  load  carried  under  running  conditions,  it  is  essential 
that  all  the  several  parts  shall  accurately  fit,  and  be  uniformly 
strong  throughout;  otherwise  the  weakest  joint  and  the  least  sound 
spoke  will  suffer,  while  indifferent  workmanship  may  appear  sound 
for  the  time  being  by  reason  of  the  force  applied.  With  the 
hydraulic  process  it  is  essential  that  the  machine  should  be  under 


s 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


258 

the  control  of  an  intelligent  workman.  Many  designs  of  wheels 
depend  on  the  uniform  quality  of  the  material,  and  the  perfect 
fitting  of  the  joints,  for  their  successful  working,  and  a  fault  develop¬ 
ing  in  one  part  leads  to  disintegration  in  other  directions. 

Dished  Wheels. — If  the  stub  axles  are  pitched,  it  will  follow  that 
a  dished  wheel  is  used,  in  which  case  the  spokes  are  not  parallel  to 
the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  wheel,  but  so  arranged  that  as  each 
spoke  comes  round  to  the  lower  vertical  position  it  is  at  right  angles 
to  the  ground  line,  and  so  supports  the  load  directly. 

A  great  deal  has  been  written  with  regard  to  the  dished  or  coned 
wheel,  but  no  favourable  argument  has  yet  been  supported  by  a 
proper  series  of  trials  between  the  upright  wheel  and  this  pattern. 
There  is  certainly  the  advantage  of  the  increased  strength  to  resist 
side  strains,  and  the  extra  width  across  the  top  of  the  wheels  for 
accommodating  a  wide  body  at  the  rear.  Another  advantage  claimed 
is  that  mud  is  thrown  more  away  from  the  body,  but  this  is  of  little 
account  with  proper  wings  or  mudguards,  and  it  should  be  the  desire 
of  all  road  users  to  confine  their  car’s  mud  spray  to  itself.  When 
wheels  are  slightly  dished  the  effect  is  more  pleasing,  since  then 
there  is  no  tendency  for  them  to  look  as  if  they  were  falling  in  at 
the  top ;  but  when  the  front  wheels  are  dished  and  the  hind  ones 
straight,  the  end  view  of  the  chassis  is  somewhat  inartistic. 

Tangential  Spokes. — An  important  deviation  from  the  standard 
type  is  the  placing  of  the  spokes  tangentially  to  the  hub  in  a  wooden 
wheel.  This  is  a  better  form,  from  the  mechanical  point  of  view, 
for  the  driving  wheels,  as  the  tendency  is  for  the  spokes  to  bend 
rather  than  to  be  compressed,  with  an  accompanying  reduction  of 
shock ;  or  in  other  words,  the  power  is  transmitted  along,  and  not 
across,  the  length  of  the  spoke.  Spokes  may  also  be  assembled 
together  by  various  interlocking  devices,  which  assist  in  the  con¬ 
struction  of  the  wheel  and  tend  to  lengthen  the  life,  as  a  faulty 
wheel  will  hold  together  longer ;  but  the  facility  for  repair  is  not 
always  enhanced,  while  spokes  are  often  staggered  at  the  hub  so 
as  to  distribute  the  load  more  evenly. 

Metal  Wheels. — Timber  being  a  material  whose  soundness  depends 
on  so  many  circumstances  has  led  to  the  increasing  use  of  metal  in 
wheel  construction,  where  the  quality  is  more  under  the  control  of 
human  agency,  and  likewise  a  substance  is  at  hand  whose  strength 


WHEELS 


259 


is  known  more  accurately,  while  its  ability  to  withstand  exposure  is 
more  marked  in  all  climates. 

Metal  wheels  are  of  various  kinds.  They  may  be  built  up  of 
steel  or  iron,  cast  in  one  piece,  or  in  parts,  and  afterwards  assembled, 
pressed  out,  or  made  of  wire  spokes  and  metal  rims.  The  cast- steel 
wheel  has  the  rim  and  spokes  cast  in  one  with  the  hub,  and  great 
care  is  required,  as  with  all  castings,  that  the  design  shall  allow  of 
equal  expansion  and  contraction  while  the  wheel  is  being  annealed. 
Such  a  wheel  can  be  made  very  light  in  appearance,  and  need  not 
exceed  in  weight  that  of  a  wooden  wheel,  while  the  spokes  may  be 
of  tubular  or  cross  section.  Lightness  is  specially  noticeable,  as 
only  eight  spokes  are  required  even  for  the  hind  wheel  of  a  double¬ 
decked  omnibus.  Some  patterns  have  wooden  hubs  in  order  to 
increase  the  resilience  of  the  wheel. 

The  pressed  steel  wheel  so  closely  resembles  the  artillery  wooden 
wheel  that  a  casual  observer  might  easily  be  deceived  when  it  has 
been  painted.  This  variety  is  again  no  heavier  than  a  wooden  one, 
in  fact  somewhat  lighter,  and  according  to  tests  which  have  been 
made,  considerably  stronger.  The  critical  test  of  a  wheel  is  its 
ability  to  withstand  sudden  lateral  strains,  as  when  skidding,  or 
taking  a  sharp  curve. 

The  built-up  wheel  has  the  advantage  of  easy  repair,  which  is 
not  the  case  with  some  other  varieties  of  metal  wheels. 

Pressed  steel  wheels  have  also  been  designed  on  the  built-up 
principle.  The  spokes  are  pressed  singly,  and  each  tang  is  brazed 
on  separately,  while  the  rim  is  an  electrically  welded  D -shaped 
pressing,  and  the  hub  a  double  steel  shell  with  a  wooden  centre. 

Wire  Wheels. — Wire  wheels,  which  were  first  used  with  success 
on  racing  cars,  are,  at  the  present  time,  gradually  gaining  in  favour 
for  touring  cars.  The  spokes  are  tangential,  and  the  stresses  on 
the  rim  are  evenly  distributed,  as  there  are  usually  sixty  spokes  in 
each  wheel,  more  than  the  total  of  a  set  of  artillery  wheels. 

The  remarks  which  have  been  made  with  regard  to  metal 
wheels  apply  to  this  type  also,  and  they  possess  the  advantages  of 
the  built-up  wheel.  The  artillery  wheel  has  the  tyre  contracted  on 
so  that  the  spokes  are  in  a  state  of  compression  ;  in  a  wire  wheel  the 
spokes  are  threaded  through  the  hub  flange,  and  tightened  by  a  nut 
at  the  nipple  end  on  the  rim,  so  that  they  are  in  a  state  of  tension. 


26o 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


When  the  car  is  standing  the  lower  spokes  are  compressed,  causing 
a  reverse  state  of  affairs  to  take  place  on  the  upper  half  of  the 
wheel,  and  when  the  car  moves  forward  each  spoke  is  gaining  in 
compression  and  losing  in  tension  as  it  turns  round  from  top  to 
bottom. 

It  is  also  necessary  when  building  up  a  wire  wheel  to  see  that 
the  tension  is  sufficient  to  withstand  the  forces  acting  in  an  opposite 
direction,  otherwise  an  undue  compression  effect  would  cause  the 
spokes  to  move  at  the  end. 

The  Rudge-Whitworth  wire  wheel  has  been  specially  designed 
for  motor-car  work,  and  differs  in  many  respects  from  the  cycle 
wheel.  The  spokes  are  double  dished,  that  is  dished  from  either 
side,  and  capable  of  resisting  side  strains  from  either  direction.  In 
order  that  this  dishing  shall  not  interfere  wTith  the  brake  drum  on 
some  cars,  a  triple-spoked  wheel  is  also  made,  which  has  a  vertical 
series  of  spokes  on  the  inside  in  addition  to  the  double  dished 
arrangement  already  mentioned.  Another  leading  feature  is  the 
bending  of  the  spoke  end  at  the  hub  to  an  angle  of  about  45°,  instead 
of  the  usual  90°,  so  that  the  strength  of  the  straight  spoke  is  largely 
retained. 

The  manufacture  of  a  wire  wheel  is  carried  out  in  a  highly 
ingenious  manner  by  special  machines.  The  hub  is  pressed  to 
shape  from  a  plain  disc  by  a  series  of  dies  which  gradually  work  it 
up  into  the  required  shape.  The  spokes  are  thicker  at  the  bent 
hub  end,  and  the  thread  is  pressed,  and  not  cut  in  so  as  to  preserve 
the  strength  of  the  wire  to  the  utmost.  Holes  are  drilled  in  the 
hub  flange  slightly  staggered,  the  holes  in  the  rim  being  drilled 
while  held  in  a  universal  jaw,  so  that  the  desired  angle  of  hole  for 
the  nipple  ends  may  be  made.  The  inner  set  of  spokes  are  attached 
to  a  hub  flange  of  larger  diameter  than  the  outer  set,  which  has  been 
found  to  add  to  the  strength  of  the  wheel,  since  the  extra  stress 
in  driving  is  taken  up  by  the  inner  spokes,  as,  being  shorter,  their 
resistance  to  compression  is  greater,  and  on  the  other  hand,  the 
longer  outer  spokes  perform  the  work  of  resisting  side  stresses  from 
the  outside.  Much  discussion  has  taken  place  as  to  the  comparative 
merits  of  wire  and  wooden  wheels,  but  so  far  as  strength,  weight, 
quality  of  material,  and  independence  of  climatic  conditions  are 
concerned,  the  wire  wheel  is  certainly  superior.  The  advocates  of 


WHEELS 


261 


the  wooden  wheel  point  out  that  it  is  more  elastic  than  the  wire 
wheel,  and  a  better  absorber  of  road  vibration,  and  if  a  fair  price  is 
paid,  the  timber  should  be  above  suspicion,  while  appearance  is  on 
its  side,  but  this  last  claim  is  a  matter  which  is  entirely  a  matter 
of  personal  taste.  The  wooden  wheel,  and  metal  types  of  a  similar 
build,  are  easier  to  keep  clean ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  wire  wheel 
is  capable  of  adjustment  should  it  be  strained  out  of  truth,  but  this 
is  not  possible  with  the  artillery  wheel.  A  far  greater  divergence 
of  opinion  lies  between  the  advisability  of  using  detachable  rims 
as  against  detachable  wheels,  a  matter  which  is  dealt  with  in  the 
chapter  on  tyres. 

Resilient  Wheels . —  The  remaining  types  of  wheels  are  those 
which  seek  to  do  away  with  the  expensive  pneumatic  tyre,  and 
obtain  resilience  with  a  solid  rubber  tyre,  and  some  means  of  spring 
device  between  the  rim  and  the  hub.  The  success  of  the  air-filled 
tyre  depends  on  the  behaviour  of  a  continuous  air-chamber ;  this  is 
difficult  to  reproduce  by  an  arrangement  of  springs,  which  although 
they  may  imitate  the  displacement,  provision  has  to  be  made  for 
the  recoil  so  that  the  pressure  is  continually  altering.  With  a 
pneumatic  tyre  it  is  only  the  area  of  contact  which  changes. 

With  a  resilient  wheel,  the  mechanism  must  not  be  too  delicate, 
otherwise  it  will  not  stand  driving,  steering  and  other  strains. 
Several  kinds  of  these  wheels  have  been  invented.  Wheel  resiliency 
is  more  effective  when  the  absorbing  medium  is  near  the  source  of 
shock,  so  that  the  air  cushion  or  spring  should  be  close  to  the  rim. 
Some  patterns  of  spring  wheels  are  to  be  condemned  owing  to  the 
complications  involved,  which  mean  not  only  expense  and  weight, 
but  liability  to  defective  working  unless  every  joint  is  well  protected 
from  the  dust  and  mud. 

Simplicity  is  essential  because  of  the  place  of  the  wheels  on  the 
chassis  and  their  ever-changing  position  as  they  revolve.  Where 
resilience  is  gained  by  employing  a  disc,  as  in  the  Lynton  wheel, 
this  would  appear  to  be  in  the  right  direction,  and  this  wheel  may 
be  had  in  various  spoked  effects  by  those  who  think  that  a  disc 
wheel  spoils  the  appearance  of  a  private  car.  Another  simple  plan 
consists  in  the  use  of  an  annular  chamber  surrounding  the  axle  box, 
loosely  packed  with  steel  balls,  through  which  the  load  is  supported. 
When  the  car  is  moved  the  weight  of  the  axle  pressing  down  tends 


262 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


to  force  the  balls  upwards  each  side,  leaving  a  very  small  vacant 
space  continually  beneath.  The  road  shocks  being  transmitted 
through  the  spokes  to  the  special  hub,  the  balls  are  for  ever  striving 
to  return  to  the  vacant  space  above  mentioned,  so  that  it  is  claimed 
vibration  is  absorbed  without  any  perceptible  reaction.  This  is  the 
“  shock-shifter  ”  hub. 

JJ heel  Sizes. — The  diameter  of  the  wheels  influences  several 
considerations  with  regard  to  the  car.  If  two  cars  have  equal 
wheel  bases,  but  one  is  mounted  on  34-in.  wheels  and  the  other 
on  a  set  of  36-in.  wheels,  the  chassis  with  the  larger  wheels  will 
be  shorter  between  the  tyres  on  the  same  side,  therefore  there  will 
be  less  room  for  the  disposing  of  a  side  entrance  body.  Also  two 
chassis  of  the  same  height  from  the  ground  but  with  different-sized 
wheels,  will  differ  in  the  amount  of  wheel  projecting  above  the 
frame,  another  point  which  may  interfere  with  body  design, 
especially  if  a  wide  and  low  seat  is  required. 

A  small  wheel  performs  more  revolutions  over  a  given  distance 
than  a  large  one,  but  unless  the  two  wheels  differ  considerably 
in  height  the  increase  of  friction  in  the  small  one  is  not  of  great 
moment.  The  larger  the  wheel  the  more  expensive  it  is  to  build 
and  maintain,  but  in  support  of  the  high  wheel  some  claim  that  a 
tyre  of  smaller  section  can  be  used,  since  the  area  of  contact  is 
greater,  while  the  small  wheel  is  at  a  disadvantage  in  negotiating 
inequalities  in  the  road.  High  wheels  are  particularly  useful  where 
road  conditions  are  primitive,  and  more  so  if  it  means  that  the 
frame  is  raised  also,  but  this  again  has  the  effect  of  raising  the 
centre  of  gravity,  which  is  always  undesirable  in  a  speedy  vehicle, 
and  larger  wings  are  required.  Equal-sized  wheels  are  useful  from 
the  economical  and  manufacturing  standpoint,  as  spokes  and  felloes 
and  other  parts  may  be  got  out  in  large  quantities  to  a  set  pattern, 
and  tyres  are  interchangeable,  so  that  one  spare  only  need  be 
carried.  From  the  aesthetic  standpoint  wheels  of  equal  diameter 
are  open  to  some  objection,  as  the  optical  effect  is  to  cause  the  hind 
wheels  to  look  a  trifle  smaller  than  the  front,  whereas  the  opposite 
arrangement  is  considered  more  desirable,  although  this  may  be 
the  result  of  continually  seeing  horse-drawn  vehicles  so  mounted. 


CHAPTER  XXV 


TYRES 

The  Outer  Cover . — The  pneumatic  tyres  claim  particular  attention, 
since  the  amount  of  their  wear  and  tear  decides  whether  a  car  can 
be  run  economically  or  otherwise,  and  their  freedom  from  break¬ 
down  is  now  the  chief  factor  in  deciding  the  reliability  of  a  car. 
The  outer  cover  has  a  beaded  edge  of  hard  rubber,  which  fits  into 
the  channels  of  a  clincher  rim,  with  pliable  sides  or  walls,  and  a 
thickened  tread,  the  whole  being  built  up  on  layers  of  canvas. 

The  inner  tube  is  of  rubber  only,  provided  with  a  non-return  air 
valve.  This,  when  filled  with  air  under  pressure,  keeps  the  outer 
cover  in  position,  by  which  it  is  protected,  provides  the  resilience, 
and  the  power  to  absorb  the  inequalities  of  the  road.  The  outer 
cover  is  usually  assisted  in  maintaining  its  proper  position  on  the 
rim  by  means  of  two  or  three  security  bolts,  the  heads  of  which 
form  a  wedge  against  the  inner  walls  of  the  beaded  edge,  or 
a  valve  may  be  used  which  combines  the  function  of  a  security 
bolt  as  well. 

As  the  tread  of  the  cover  meets  directly  with  the  surface  of 
the  road,  its  design  and  construction  is  the  most  important  variation 
of  the  many  kinds  of  tyres  used.  This  part  may  be  round,  flat  or 
square,  or  non-skid,  a  term  which  means  that  provision  is  specially 
made  to  resist  the  undue  side  movement  of  the  car  on  slippery 
roads,  while  various  methods  of  reinforcement  are  present  in  all 
patterns  of  treads  designed  to  resist  punctures  and  road  friction  of 
all  kinds.  The  plain  half-round  tread  is  seldom  used  for  the  set  of 
wheels,  but  often  finds  favour  for  the  front  wheels,  where  there  is  no 
driving  strain,  but  its  liability  to  skid  has  resulted  largely  in  the 
adoption  of  the  flat  tread.  This  pattern,  which  is  often  ribbed  and 
grooved,  resists  side  slip,  but  in  so  doing  more  heat  is  generated. 


264 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


The  non-skid  tread  is  greatly  in  favour  for  the  driving  wheels,  and 
may  have  a  leather  or  rubber  band  having  steel  studs,  rubber  studs, 
or  various  other  designs  of  projections  and  depressions.  The  steel 
stud  is  objected  to  by  some,  on  account  of  its  wear  on  the  road,  but 
it  wears  longer  than  the  rubber  stud,  although  these  will  last  4,000 
miles  with  care.  Some  forms  of  rubber  projections  wear  a  con¬ 
siderable  time,  but  naturally  a  large  amount  of  rubber  is  required 
in  the  tread. 

Inner  Tube  Protection. — The  vulnerable  point  of  the  tyre  being 
the  inner  tube,  the  cover  has  to  be  inspected  continually  so  that  any 
defects  in  its  protecting  power  may  be  immediately  made  good. 
Further  safeguards  have  been  recently  invented,  which  seek  to  pro¬ 
tect  it  by  inserting  an  armoured  tube,  tube  corset,  or  liner,  which  is 
wrapped  round  the  tube  and  lies  between  it  and  the  outer  cover.  It 
is  essential  that  these  devices  should  remain  in  the  position  where 
placed,  that  is,  to  be  free  from  “  creeping,”  and  likewise  their  con¬ 
struction  must  ensure  that  no  friction  is  set  up  between  the  delicate 
tube  and  the  liner,  or  the  constant  rubbing  will  soon  wear  it  thin. 
Holes  in  the  cover,  if  of  sufficient  dimensions,  allow  the  tube,  which 
is  under  a  pressure  often  of  60  and  more  lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  to 
protrude  and  finally  burst,  which  is  a  most  disastrous  accident,  and 
a  tube  has  been  invented  which,  owing  to  its  peculiar  construction, 
is  capable  of  resisting  a  large  amount  of  internal  pressure  even 
when  unsupported  by  the  cover  in  position. 

Pneumatic  Tyres  necessary  for  High-speed  Vehicles. — The  pneu¬ 
matic  tyre  is  necessary  for  a  vehicle  travelling  at  high  speed,  in 
order  to  give  comfort  to  the  passengers,  and  to  preserve  the  vehicle. 
Although  road  vibration  is  partly  absorbed  by  the  springs,  yet  these 
are  insufficient  when  travelling  at  more  than  fifteen  miles  per  hour. 
Pneumatic  tyres  are  useful  up  to  a  load  of  2^  tons,  and  may  be 
used  for  such  fast-moving  vehicles  as  fire  engines  and  ambulances. 

For  slower  cars,  such  as  commercial  vehicles,  and  where  upkeep 
is  a  vital  point,  the  solid  tyre  is  of  great  utility,  and  where  great 
weight  is  carried,  double  and  triple  tyres  are  mounted  on  each  hind 
wheel.  The  tyres  should  be  proportional  to  the  load,  yet  not  of 
such  excessive  section  that  little  work  is  demanded  of  the  springs. 
Partly  inflated  tyres  mean  smoother  running  than  those  pumped 
up  hard,  but  they  will  not  last  so  long.  The  solid  tyre  requires  a 


TYRES 


265 

chassis  with  the  various  parts  designed  with  extra  strength  so  as  to 
withstand  the  extra  vibration,  and  the  tyre  must  be  securely  fastened 
so  that  it  will  remain  firm  under  heavy  loads.  Tyres  of  all  de¬ 
scriptions,  owing  to  the  constant  rolling  of  the  wheel,  tend  to  leave 
the  rim  at  a  tangent,  because  of  the  centrifugal  forces  present,  and 
any  addition  to  the  weight  of  the  tyre,  especially  at  the  tread, 
increases  the  probability  of  its  detachment. 

Solid  Tyre  Attachment. — Pneumatic  tyres  are  almost  without 
exception  retained  in  position  by  their  beaded  edges  and  security 
bolts,  particularly  now  that  the  patent  covering  this  means  of 
attachment  has  expired.  In  a  few  instances  the  cover  has  been 
bolted  on,  but  with  solid  tyres  there  are  three  or  four  leading 
methods  used.  These  tyres  may  have  an  endless  wire  which  has 
either  been  welded  or  drawn  taut  by  left-  and  right-handed  nuts ; 
or  be  cemented  at  the  hardened  or  vulcanite  base  to  a  steel  band, 
which  is  bolted  in  various  ways  to  the  rim ;  or  fastened  by  cross 
wires,  or  a  combination  of  cross  and  circumferential  wires. 

Most  solid  tyres  require  a  machine  in  order  to  fit  them  tightly, 
but  sectional  tyres  may  be  had  which  can  be  fitted  by  hand. 

The  Manufacture  of  Rubber. — Indiarubber  or  caoutchouc  comes 
chiefly  from  the  valley  of  the  Amazon  in  South  America,  or  other 
parts  of  the  world  lying  in  the  tropics,  where  an  average  tempera¬ 
ture  of  80°  F.,  with  a  small  variation,  is  a  feature  of  climate.  The 
substance,  not  to  be  confused  with  gutta-percha,  is  the  milky  juice 
or  latex,  as  distinct  from  the  sap,  which  comes  away  from  various 
classes  of  trees  on  the  bark  being  cut.  Different  systems  are 
adopted  for  incising  the  trees  and  also  collecting  the  juice,  due 
regard  being  given  to  the  amount  of  labour  entailed,  and  the  future 
existence  and  supply  of  the  tree. 

One  method  of  preparing  the  rubber  for  the  market  is  to  transfer 
the  contents  of  the  various  small  collecting  cups  into  a  larger  vessel, 
and  then  to  hasten  coagulation  by  a  fire  of  palm  nuts,  the  liberation 
of  acetic  acid  and  creosote  causing  the  thickening  up  of  the  rubber. 
A  paddle  is  dipped  in  and  then  held  in  the  smoke  of  the  fire  until 
the  lump  solidifies,  and  by  this  means  several  layers  are  added  until 
a  sufficiently  large  mass  is  built  upon  the  paddle,  which  is  then 
cut  off. 

The  crude  rubber  is  passed  through  a  washing  machine,  and 


266  MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 

is  pressed  into  various  shapes  to  assist  drying,  and  convenience  of 
handling  for  export. 

The  tyre  manufacturer  often  performs  the  washing  and  drying 
himself,  as  much  of  the  wild  rubber,  in  distinction  to  the  cultivated 
varieties,  is  received  in  its  crude  state.  There  are  also  factories 
devoted  entirely  to  the  preparation  of  rubber. 

After  drying,  the  rubber  is  mixed  with  sulphur  and  otliei 
ingredients.  Inner  tubes  should  have  only  sulphur  added,  while 
outer  covers  and  solid  tyres  have  other  ingredients  added,  such  as 
oxide  of  zinc,  which  increases  the  toughness ;  powdered  abestos, 
which  gives  heat  resisting  powers ;  while  whiting,  lead  oxide,  and 
carbonate  of  magnesia  are  added  for  other  good  reasons. 

Absolutely  pure  rubber  is  useless  for  tyre  purposes,  and  the 
nature  and  proportion  of  the  ingredients  added  decide  its  subsequent 
elasticity  and  wearing  properties.  The  drying,  during  which  the 
rubber  loses  about  a  quarter  of  its  bulk,  is  a  tedious  operation,  but 
must  be  thoroughly  carried  out  in  darkened  rooms,  otherwise  any 
moisture  remaining  will  create  porosity  in  the  following  processes. 

Making  the  Inner  Tube— Inner  tubes  are  made  by  cutting  a 
strip  of  rubber  sheet  of  the  required  size,  and  wrapping  it  round 
an  aluminium  mandril  or  core  with  a  fine  cloth,  joining  the  edges 
with  solution,  and  then  curing  and  vulcanizing  it  in  a  bath  of 
steam.  Some  judgment  is  required  in  deciding  the  length  of  time 
and  temperature  during  this  process.  The  patch  which  receives 
the  valve  may  be  inserted  either  in  or  out,  the  inside  position 
making  a  neat  and  flush  job  less  likely  to  set  up  friction.  Inner 
tubes  are  also  moulded  in  circular  form  so  that  they  keep  a  better 
shape  when  deflated,  while  others  may  be  constructed  so  that  they 
naturally  spring  away  from  the  security  bolts  when  emptied  of  air, 
so  preventing  nipping,  which  is  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  innei- 
tube  damage. 

Construction  oj  an  Outer  Cover. — The  building  up  of  an  outei 
cover  takes  some  time,  and  although  there  is  a  less  proportion 
of  pure  rubber  in  it,  it  will  be  readily  seen  why  this  part  of  the  tyre 
costs  double  that  of  the  tube.  The  cover  is  built  up  on  a  series  of 
layers  of  absolutely  dry  cotton  canvas,  which  is  cut  “  on  the  cross, 
so  that  it  leaves  but  little  fulness  in  shaping  it  up  around  the  bead. 
The  cover  being  smaller  at  the  edge  than  in  the  centre  of  the  tread, 


TYRES 


267 


there  would  be  considerable  puckering  of  the  fabric  if  it  were  laid 
in  the  direction  of  its  length  or  weave,  and  moreover,  a  hole  once 
started  would  easily  be  extended  right  round  the  circumference  of 
the  tyre.  This  placing  of  the  canvas  also  gives  it  a  better  resistance 
to  the  rolling  action  of  the  wheel  on  the  road. 

The  canvas  plies  are  joined  to  one  another,  and  as  there  are 
several  in  a  heavy  tyre,  the  manufacturer  endeavours  to  make  them 
as  few  as  possible  by  using  a  machine  which  will  treat  the  canvas 
in  wide  pieces  during  the  calendering  operation,  which  is  carried 
out  by  frictioning  or  spreading.  The  friction  calender  has  three 
iron  rolls  heated  by  steam,  the  centre  one  being  driven  at  twice  the 
speed  of  the  others.  The  rubber  is  fed  between  the  upper  and 
centre  rolls,  and  the  canvas  is  passed  between  the  centre  and  lower 
rolls,  so  that  the  rubber  forms  a  thin  coating  on  the  canvas,  owing 
to  its  higher  speed  and  greater  heat.  The  other  side  of  the  canvas 
is  similarly  treated.  In  the  spreading  process  the  rubber  is  laid 
on  while  in  a  solvent  condition  over  the  cotton,  no  pressure  being 
used.  The  impregnating  method  devised  by  the  North  British 
Rubber  Co.  consists  in  passing  the  cotton  repeatedly  under  pressure 
through  a  tank  of  rubber  solution.  After  each  immersion  the  cotton 
passes  through  hot  steam  chests,  which  immediately  evaporate  the 
solvent,  while  the  thickness  of  the  rubber  solution  is  increased  each 
time,  and  it  is  claimed  that  by  so  doing  a  rubberized  fabric  is 
produced. 

The  main  difficulty  lies  in  incorporating  the  rubber  with  the 
cotton,  and  the  ideal  method  is  the  one  which  does  this  successfully 
with  no  danger  of  the  two  becoming  separated  in  the  subsequent 
stages  of  manufacture,  or  while  the  tyre  is  in  use. 

In  the  Palmer  tyre  carefully  rubbered  and  flattened  cords  are 
used  as  the  fabric  on  which  the  tyre  is  built.  The  cords  lying 
parallel,  and  crossing  each  other  at  such  an  angle  that  they  are 
tangential  to  the  rim,  therefore  lie  nearly  in  the  line  of  strain, 
which  falls  upon  all  of  them  equally. 

To  revert  to  the  ordinary  practice,  two  or  more  layers  of  rubber- 
coated  canvas  are  wrapped  over  a  circular  mandril,  and  the  fulness 
which  develops  at  the  sides  is  smoothed  out.  The  bead  is  then 
attached  to  each  edge,  which  is  made  by  being  extruded  or  forced 
through  a  die  of  the  required  sectional  shape.  The  beads  must  be 


268 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


parallel,  and  of  the  proper  shape,  so  that  the  clinches  of  the  rim 
are  filled  without  undue  strain.  A  tightly  fitting  bead  of  hard 
rubber  is  often  very  difficult  to  detach. 

So  far  the  compound  used,  if  a  high-class  tyre,  is  mainly  rubber 
and  the  right  proportion  of  sulphur,  but  in  building  up  the  tread 
the  compounding  is  more  complex,  and  the  formula  used  may  be 
regarded  as  a  secret  one.  The  strips  of  rubber  coated  canvas  are 
calendered  in  rolls  of  the  proper  distance  apart  so  as  to  regulate  the 
thickness,  and  are  put  on  similarly  to  the  under  layers,  after  which 
two  strips  of  reinforcing  canvas  are  laid  on  in  the  direction  of  the 
circumference  of  the  tyre,  thereby  raising  the  tread  in  the  centre. 

The  cover,  so  built  up,  is  put  into  a  well-fitting  cast-iron  case 
made  in  halves,  then  closed  up,  and  subjected  to  a  bath  of  steam 
(at  a  temperature  of  about  280°  F.,  for  about  three  hours,  during 
which  the  sulphur  melts)  in  the  vulcanizing  chamber,  after  which 
it  is  taken  out  and  any  superfluous  rubber  trimmed  off. 

If  too  great  a  temperature  is  used  a  brittle  compound  results 
which  will  easily  split,  a  fact  which  should  be  remembered  by  those 
who  endeavour  to  vulcanize  their  own  tyres. 

Separate  bands  of  a  non-skid  character  may  afterwards  be 
solutioned  on,  but  generally  it  is  better  for  them  to  be  made  up 
with  the  body  of  the  tread  so  that  there  is  no  danger  of  them 
subsequently  rolling  off  when  in  use.  The  tread  of  the  tyre  should 
be  always  more  or  less  under  compression,  so  that  any  small  cut 
made  in  it  is  self-closing,  otherwise  likelihood  of  the  pinching 
of  the  tube  is  more  certain. 

Solid  Tyre  Manufacture. — Solid  tyres  are  made  by  forming  the 
rubber  compound  into  a  workable  mass  by  hot  rolling,  and  then 
forcing  the  stuff  through  a  die  as  with  the  making  of  the  bead,  the 
ends  being  cut  so  that  a  spliced  joint  can  be  made. 

When  the  base  of  the  tyre  is  embedded  in  a  vulcanite  base,  the 
proportion  of  sulphur  to  rubber  is  increased  gradually,  so  that  the 
character  of  the  rubber  allows  it  to  be  easily  incorporated  with 
the  tread  above,  while  below  the  greater  amount  of  sulphur  provides 
a  hard  variety  of  rubber  which  may  be  more  readily  attached  to  the 
metal  band,  which  is  cleaned  and  carefully  brushed  with  solution 
for  that  purpose.  The  built-up  or  plain  solid  tyre  is  then  placed  in 
moulds  and  vulcanized. 


TYRES 


269 

The  ideal  tyre  should  have  its  ingredients  evenly  distributed, 
and  the  various  batches  of  material  should  be  alike  so  that  the  brand 
of  tyre  is  dependable.  The  careful  manufacturer  will  endeavour 
to  use  such  materials  as  increase  the  weight  of  the  tyre  to  a 
minimum  extent,  and  have  as  little  effect  upon  the  surrounding 
rubber  as  possible. 

Tyre  Manipulation. — The  fitting  and  detaching  of  pneumatic 
tyres  on  the  wheel  rims  is  considered  by  many  as  a  rather  laborious 
process,  but  the  correct  way  of  carrying  these  operations  out  must 
be  fully  understood,  otherwise  an  expensive  tyre  may  easily  be 
damaged. 

Those  who  are  cyclists  will  need  little  advice,  as  the  process  is 
much  the  same  coupled  with  the  expenditure  of  a  little  more  energy. 
The  tools  required  are  a  jack  to  raise  the  axle  from  the  ground,  and 
two  or  more  levers  of  various  patterns,  together  with  a  pump  and  a 
supply  of  French  chalk,  a  white  powder,  soapy  to  the  touch,  which 
is  useful  for  preventing  the  rubber  surfaces  sticking,  and  therefore 
acts  as  a  dry  lubricant.  The  repair  outfit  must,  of  course,  not  be 
forgotten,  which  will  include  a  supply  of  different  sized  patches,  a 
tube  of  solution,  valve  pins  (the  vital  part  of  the  valve),  washers,  a 
small  brush  for  cleaning  the  repair,  and  a  gaiter. 

Attaching  the  Tyre. — Wipe  the  rim  round  once  or  twice  so  as  to 
free  it  from  any  possible  grit,  and  if  a  wire  wheel,  see  that  no  spoke 
ends  are  projecting ;  if  so,  these  must  be  corrected  before  proceeding 
farther.  The  normal  rim  has  two  or  three  smaller  holes  for  the 
passage  of  the  security  bolts,  and  a  larger  one  for  the  air  valve. 
The  work  is  then  rendered  easier  by  a  moderate  use  of  the  French 
chalk,  which  should  be  wiped  over  the  beads,  and  inside  of  the  cover, 
and  over  the  tube,  and  not  scattered  loosely  around,  because  an 
excess  defeats  the  object  in  view,  as  lumps  will  be  formed  which 
will  set  up  friction  between  the  cover  and  the  tube.  The  tube  may 
be  first  inserted  in  the  cover,  and  then  taken  to  the  wheel,  or  what 
is  perhaps  a  better  method  the  cover  is  partly  attached  and  then 
the  tube  inserted  afterwards.  Taking  this  method  the  wheel  is 
turned  so  that  the  valve  hole  is  at  the  top,  the  cover  at  the  valve 
slit  is  presented  at  the  valve  hole,  and  then  the  bead  nearest  the  car 
is  inserted  as  far  as  possible  by  means  of  the  hand  placed  inside, 
the  operation  at  the  inner  clinch  being  finished  by  the  lever  or 


270 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


levers,  according  to  the  particular  pattern  used,  each  leading  tyre 
firm  having  its  own  special  shape,  which  is  designed  to  facilitate 
the  work,  and  prevent  injury  with  a  minimum  of  dexterity.  Some 
advocate  that  the  security  bolts  shall  be  placed  in  position  loosely 
immediately  after  cleaning  the  rim,  but  if  not  done  so  then,  they 
must  now  be  carefully  inserted,  during  which  process  the  fork  lever 
is  extremely  useful,  that  is,  a  tool  which  has  two  prongs,  thereby 
enabling  a  fairly  wide  section  of  the  loose  bead  of  the  cover  to  be 
lifted,  the  bolt  being  inserted  between  the  prongs,  and  repeating  the 
operation  at  each  bolt  hole.  The  tube  which  is  to  be  used  must 
be  quite  flat,  and  an  additional  precaution  is  to  see  that  it  is  quite 
sound.  If  the  tube  shows  signs  of  contained  air,  the  valve  should 
be  undone,  and  the  deflation  carried  out  by  rolling  the  tube  up  from 
each  side  towards  the  valve,  afterwards  fastening  up  the  valve  again. 
The  tube  is  then  taken  to  the  wheel,  and  the  fork  lever  inserted 
centrally  over  the  valve  hole,  the  valve  pushed  through,  and  the 
tube  inserted  well  under,  and  into  the  cover.  The  remaining 
portion  of  the  tube  is  then  gently  arranged  round  the  rim  in 
sections  by  pulling  the  outer  loose  bead  with  one  hand  and  tucking  in 
the  tube  with  the  other,  no  straining  or  pulling  being  used  to  get  the 
tube  into  position,  and  when  it  fully  encircles  the  wheel  it  should  be 
tested  with  the  hand  to  see  that  there  are  no  creases  present. 
When  the  tube  is  placed  in  the  cover  first,  it  is  usual  to  slightly 
inflate  it  with  a  few  strokes  of  the  pump,  but  in  the  method  de¬ 
scribed  here,  this  will  be  done  now,  and  if  the  tube  does  not  feel 
smooth  to  the  touch  it  is  a  sure  sign  that  the  work  has  been  impro¬ 
perly  done,  and  it  is  advisable  to  start  all  over  again  by  deflating 
and  gently  withdrawing  the  tube.  The  outer  bead  has  now  to  be 
placed  in  position  by  means  of  the  lever  being  inserted  under  it,  and 
lifted  up  so  that  the  bead  is  scooped  into  the  clinch.  By  using  two 
levers  a  longer  section  of  the  bead  may  be  treated  at  a  time,  and  if 
a  hooked  lever  is  used  in  conjunction  part  of  the  bead  may  be  re¬ 
tained  in  position  while  the  remainder  is  being  dealt  with. 

Each  of  the  security  bolts  being  loose  they  should  be  free  to 
move  inwards  towards  the  tread  of  the  cover ;  if  not  they  are  nipping 
the  tube,  or  else  wedged  under,  instead  of  over,  the  bead.  The 
attachment  of  the  tyre  can  also  be  assisted  by  the  hand  being- 
grasped  over  the  cover.  The  tyre  is  then  fully  inflated,  according 


TYRES 


271 


to  the  table  given,  by  means  of  three  hundred  or  four  hundred 
strokes  of  a  foot  pump  provided  with  a  gauge,  and  finally  the  bolts 
and  valves  tightened  up  by  hand.  A  tyre  may  also  be  pumped  up 
by  a  suitable  attachment  made  to  the  exhaust,  or  by  way  of  the  air 
inlet  of  the  carburettor,  so  that  in  either  case  the  engine  is  called 
upon  to  do  the  work. 

Other  ways  adopted  are  by  means  of  compressed  air,  which  may 
be  purchased  in  iron  bottles,  and  by  sparklets,  which  generate  gas 
similar  to  the  methods  adopted  in  making  aerated  water  at  home. 

Detaching  the  Tyre. — In  most  cases  this  will  be  the  motorist’s 
first  experience  of  tyre  manipulation.  The  tyre  is  first  deflated, 
and  the  bolts  unscrewed,  and  the  outer  bead  treated  with  the 
levers,  which  are  worked  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  adopted 
during  attachment,  and  when  arriving  at  the  valve,  or  any  of 
the  bolts,  these  are  pushed  up  so  as  to  be  free  from  the  bead. 
During  the  first  part  of  the  releasing  of  the  cover  the  levers  must 
not  be  held  too  far  apart,  or  too  near  together,  otherwise  the 
bead  will  not  move,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  the  bead  will  slip 
back  again. 

The  tube  being  in  the  cover  the  end  of  the  levers  must  be 
kept  carefully  away  from  it.  The  tube  is  removed  by  inserting 
the  prongs  of  the  fork  lever  as  before  over  the  valve,  so  that  it 
and  the  rest  of  the  tube  can  be  released  from  under  the  loose 
bead.  The  further  bead  of  the  cover  is  then  detached  by  pulling 
the  cover  towards  the  operator  assisted  by  a  flat  lever. 

To  acquire  proficiency  the  motorist  cannot  do  better  than 
acquaint  himself  with  the  actual  operation,  receiving  instruction 
from  an  expert  garage  hand,  and,  if  possible,  practising  with  an 
old  cover  and  tube,  or  he  may  avoid  the  greater  part  of  this  tedious 
process  by  having  his  car  fitted  with  rims  which  allow  of  much 
easier  taking  off  and  putting  on,  as  are  described  later  in  this 
chapter. 

The  leading  points  to  keep  in  view  are  slow,  deliberate,  and 
systematic  operation,  with  due  regard  for  a  minimum  of  well 
applied  chalk,  and  the  life  of  the  inner  tube. 

Tyre  Preservation . — The  tyres  should  be  kept  away  from  all 
grease  and  oil,  agents  which  have  a  solvent  effect  on  the  rubber, 
while  water,  if  it  gets  at  the  canvas,  will  rot  it.  Therefore  the 


272 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


car,  whether  in  the  garage  or  standing  in  the  road,  should  he  kept 
away  from  puddles  and  oil  droppings.  The  security  bolts  and 
valve  should  fit  well  into  their  holes,  and  be  screwed  home  so 
that  water  cannot  enter  the  rim,  also  the  tyre  should  be  wiped 
after  the  car  has  been  washed. 

The  faster  a  car  travels  the  greater  the  friction  and  the 
accompanying  heat  generated,  which  is  again  a  destructive  factor, 
and  as  has  been  pointed  out,  this  also  depends  on  the  flatness 
of  the  tread,  and  the  degree  of  inflation.  On  the  other  hand, 
some  punctures  are  avoided  by  fast  driving. 

The  metal  rim  should  be  kept  properly  painted  so  that  no 
rust  can  accumulate,  otherwise  a  jagged  edge  will  be  formed, 
which  is  detrimental  to  the  bead.  The  rim  must  be  true,  that 
is  with  parallel  clinches,  the  whole  forming  a  true  circle,  while 
wheels  must  be  truly  set  on  the  axles,  and  tight  in  all  their 
joints,  so  that  there  is  no  undue  strain  on  the  tyres. 

The  life  of  the  tyres  is  further  ensured  if  they  are  suited 
to  their  work  as  regards  section  and  substance  for  weight  carried, 
and  also  due  attention  paid  to  their  proper  inflation.  They  should 
be  periodically  inspected,  and  any  slight  defect  remedied  at  once. 
Abrupt  stopping  and  starting,  and  quick  turning,  all  assist  in 
shortening  the  life  of  the  tyre. 

Tyre  Repairs. — Only  the  smaller  repairs  are  undertaken  by 
the  motorist,  such  as  patching  small  punctures,  and  filling  up 
small  holes  in  the  cover.  The  cover  is  repaired  after  removal 
with  bevelled  rubber  and  canvas  patches,  an  inch  larger  all 
round  than  the  hole,  which  has  been  smeared  with  solution, 
allowed  to  dry,  and  then  applied  to  the  inside  of  the  cover,  over 
which  it  is  usual  to  lace  a  gaiter  until  the  damage  can  be  per¬ 
manently  repaired  by  vulcanizing. 

Tubes  are  mended  with  a  bevelled  rubber  patch,  and  in  each 
case  French  chalk  is  used  to  dry  up  the  edges  of  the  work.  A 
thickened  variety  of  solution  can  also  be  obtained,  which  is  useful 
for  plugging  holes  in  the  tube,  and  spreading  over  the  defects  in 
the  cover. 

Serious  tyre  repairs  are  done  by  the  manufacturer,  who  has 
a  special  plant  at  his  disposal  as  well  as  the  necessary  experience. 
Many  garages  are  now  equipped  with  electric,  steam  and  flame 


TYRES 


273 


vulcanizing  apparatus,  where  such  patches  which  have  been  applied 
on  the  road  can  be  substituted  for  a  proper  filling  up  of  the 
damaged  parts. 

Inner  tubes  will  have  their  punctures  properly  vulcanized, 
and  it  may  be  necessary,  in  the  event  of  a  bad  burst,  to  insert  a 
new  section  of  tubing.  Vulcanizing,  as  carried  out  by  the  motorist 
himself,  or  in  the  garage,  is  a  copy  of  the  processes,  on  a  small 
scale,  of  the  tyre  maker.  The  hole  is  well  cleaned  and  trimmed 
with  a  bevel  all  round,  roughened  with  glass-paper  or  a  wire  brush, 
so  as  to  give  a  grip  to  the  new  material.  The  hole  being  quite 
dry,  four  coats  of  solution  are  given,  allowing  time  for  each  coat 
to  dry ;  the  new  rubber  is  pressed  in  and  smoothed  over  with  a 
roller,  the  excess  being  sliced  off  with  a  wet  knife. 

Vulcanizing  takes  about  thirty  minutes  at  the  temperature 
already  stated.  Heat  may  be  dispensed  with  by  using  a  prepara¬ 
tion  consisting  of  bi- sulphide  of  carbon  (a  solvent  of  rubber)  and 
chloride  of  sulphur,  which  is  applied  to  the  surface  under  treat¬ 
ment,  and  takes  the  place  of  the  vulcanizing. 

Special  patches  are  used  which  have  an  unvulcanized  surface. 

Vulcanizing  is  much  preferred  to  ordinary  patching,  as  the 
repaired  and  surrounding  portions  of  the  tyre  are,  as  it  were, 
welded  together,  whereas  with  patching  the  parts  are  simply  bridged 
over,  which  cannot  be  so  strong  or  satisfactory  as  filling  up  the  hole 
completely,  making  it  flush  with  the  original  tyre  substance  both 
in  and  out.  After  repairs  of  any  sort,  the  tyre  will  give  better 
service  if  it  is  allowed  to  rest  for  three  or  four  days,  so  that  the 
motorist  will  find  that  economical  running  is  bound  up  with  a 
reasonable  supply  of  spares. 

Tyres,  as  they  wear,  should  be  watched  to  see  that  the  tread  does 
not  become  too  thin,  as  a  well-made  outer  cover  can  be  re-treaded, 
which  doubles  the  life  of  the  tyre  at  the  price  of  less  than  a  tyre 
and  a  half. 

Spare  covers  should  be  protected  from  the  light,  as  well  as  from 
oil  and  water,  by  being  kept  in  a  waterproof  case,  and  the  position 
chosen  should  be  as  cool  as  possible.  Tubes  require  the  extra  pre¬ 
caution  of  being  kept  away  from  anything  which  may  rub  them, 
and  the  best  receptacle  is  a  waterproof  bag  which  has  had  the 
interior  rubbed  over  with  french  chalk,  such  bags  being  kept 

T 


274  MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 

by  themselves,  or  in  a  partitioned-off  space  in  the  locker  or 
tool  box. 

Mileage. — Owing  to  great  variations  in  road  surfaces,  the  care 
taken  in  driving,  and  other  considerations,  it  is  difficult  to  predict 
the  life  of  a  cover  before  re-treading.  Perhaps  5,000  miles  is  a  good 
average,  while  more  than  three  times  that  amount  is  claimed  for 
high-class  solid  tyres. 

Solid  tyres  may  be  purchased  guaranteed  to  give  a  mileage  of 
10,000  in  a  year,  but  this  way  of  buying  naturally  imposes  various 
restrictions,  such  as  maximum  weight  carried,  type  of  road  run  on, 
and  periodical  inspection ;  but  it  may  be  safely  assumed  that  if  the 
vendor  can  afford  to  guarantee  tyres  for  10,000  miles,  with  fair 
usage,  they  will  actually  last  longer  still. 

Tyre  Pressures  and  Loads. — It  is  useful  to  know  the  proper 
degree  of  inflation,  as  this  is  an  important  factor  in  lengthening 
the  life  of  the  tyres.  The  weight  of  the  car  is  ascertained  by 
pushing  it  on  to  the  centre  of  a  weighbridge  with  one  pair  of  wheels 
off  the  machine,  and  repeating  the  operation  with  the  other  set  of 
wheels,  so  that  the  weight  on  each  axle  is  known. 

The  following  is  a  table  of  average  pressures  which  are  suit¬ 
able  : — 


Size  of  tyre  section  in 
millimetres. 

Weight  in  lbs.  to  be 
carried  by  each  tyre. 

Air  pressure  in  lbs.  per  sq.  inch  in  tube. 

Hind  wheels. 

Front  wheels. 

65 

380 

50 

42 

75 

450 

55 

48 

»  85 

550 

60 

52 

90 

750 

70 

62 

100 

950 

75 

70 

105 

1050 

75 

70 

120 

1200 

75 

70 

135 

1350 

75 

70 

150 

1500 

75 

70 

If  tyres  which  are  built  up  lighter  are  used  on  the  steering 
wheels,  the  pressure  may  be  some  10  lbs.  less,  while  the  pressure 
should  be  increased  if  the  load  is  beyond  that  specified  above.  If 
the  load  is  increased  10  per  cent.,  then  the  tyre  pressure  should  be 


TYRES 


275 

approximately  2  per  cent.  more.  The  car  should  be  overtyred 
rather  than  undershod,  the  increased  outlay  being  compensated 
for  by  the  additional  mileage  obtained. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  above  figures  relate  to  the 
load  per  wheel,  so  that  they  must  be  doubled  to  ascertain  the  axle 
load  which  has  been  previously  arrived  at  on  the  weighbridge,  the 
car  being  fully  equipped,  and  with  its  full  complement  of 
passengers. 

The  various  loads  per  axle  suitable  for  solid  tyres  are  as 
follows  : — 


To  carry  a  total 
load  of 

O11  front  axle  about 

Ou  hind  axle 
about 

Size  of  front  tyres. 

Size  of  bind  twin 
tyres  each. 

2f  tons. 

15  cwt. 

14 

tons. 

65 

mm.  or  24" 

65  mm. 

3  [-3 

4  tons. 

20-22  cwt. 

2} 

55 

75 

5  5 

5  5 

3" 

75 

4 

tons. 

If  tons. 

27 

55 

85 

5J 

55 

8]" 

85 

4.V 

n 

U 

»» 

3 

55 

90 

51 

55 

34" 

85 

5 1 

5 

55 

1} 

55 

j> 

100 

»j 

55 

4r' 

90 

5  5 

6 

55 

2 

55 

4 

55 

100 

55 

5  5 

4" 

100 

7 

55 

2j 

55 

47 

55 

110 

55 

5  5 

4J" 

110 

5  5 

8 

55 

24 

55 

54 

55 

120 

55 

55 

4  7" 

110 

9 

55 

2'7 

55 

61 

>> 

120 

55 

120 

5  ) 

10 

55 

3 

» 

7 

55 

140 

55 

5  5 

54" 

120 

11 

55 

H 

55 

n 

55 

140 

55 

140 

12 

55 

8^r 

»> 

84 

>* 

160 

55 

55 

61" 

140 

13 

55 

4 

» 

9 

55 

160 

55 

160 

14 

55 

5 

55 

9 

160 

55 

l 

1 

160 

55 

Tyre  Sizes . — The  diameter  of  the  tyre  is  usually  expressed  in 
millimetres,  likewise  the  measurement  across  the  sectional  area  or 
width  over  all  the  tread.  These  sizes  are  usually  approximate  only, 
and  differ  slightly  with  various  manufacturers.  There  is  a  bewilder¬ 
ing  array  of  different  sizes  of  tyres  placed  at  the  motorist’s  disposal, 
which  on  the  face  of  it  would  appear  to  be  unwise,  especially  with 
a  detachable  device.  One  may  obtain  covers  and  tubes  ranging 
from  650  mm.  (25§  ins.),  rising  in  graduations  of  50  mm.  (2  ins.) 
to  1050  mm.  (41|  ins.),  with  odd  sizes  between,  and  different 
sectional  areas,  so  that  a  large  firm  can  offer  a  selection  of  over  40 
different  sizes  of  tyres,  which  does  not  always  ensure  that  the 
motorist,  stranded  in  a  small  country  town,  can  obtain  at  once  his 
desired  new  cover  or  tube.  No  doubt  this  has  been  the  cause  of 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


276 

the  adoption  of  equal-sized  wheels,  although  this  again  is  defeated 
to  an  extent  if  the  car  has  non-skids  at  the  rear.  However,  5  mm. 
(,%  in.)  difference  in  the  section  of  a  tyre  can  be  used  for  the  same 
rims,  and  the  cost  ranges  from  £8  6s.  for  a  light  tube  and  cover 
(650  x  65)  up  to  £9  15s.  for  a  heavy  steel-studded  complete  tyre 
(1050  X  150).  The  largest  tyres  so  far  adopted  for  touring  cars  are 
180  mm.  or  7  ins.  in  width.  Small  tyres  are  naturally  cheaper  in 
first  cost,  but  the  larger  and  wider  the  tyre  the  greater  the  comfort 
and  power  to  travel  over  bad  road  surfaces ;  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
a  wide  tyre  is  a  dust  raiser. 

Detachable  Rims,  Flanges  and  Wheels —Tyre  removal  and  refitt¬ 
ing  is  a  tedious  job,  which  is  rendered,  on  a  rainy  day  on  a  muddy 
road,  when  time  is  valuable,  to  say  the  least,  objectionable,  so  that 
it  is  not  surprising  that  various  devices  have  been  invented  which 
are  designed  to  minimize  this,  or  defer  the  operation  to  a  more 
convenient  time  and  place. 

Foremost  among  the  inventions  which  allow  the  motorist  to 
continue  with  his  damaged  tyre,  is  the  spare  rim  or  wheel  known  as 
the  Stepney  spare  wheel.  This  is  carried  on  the  off-side  long  side 
step,  preferably  in  a  metal  well,  and  when  wanted  for  use  is 
removed  from  the  claws  of  the  tyre  carriers  and  offered  up  to  the 
wheel  rendered  hors  de  combat.  Three  or  four  strong  hooks  are 
provided  on  the  Stepney  wheel,  which  are  engaged  with  the  rim  of 
the  deflated  tyre  by  pushing  the  cover  inward,  and  then  screwing 
up  tightly  and  not  opposite  the  security  bolts,  while  as  a  precaution, 
straps  are  used  coupling  the  spokes  to  bollards  on  the  spare  rim, 
so  as  to  prevent  any  creeping.  These  wheels  may  be  purchased 
with  expanding  and  contracting  hooks,  so  that  a  car  shod  with 
larger  wheels  at  the  rear  may  be  served  by  one  spare  wheel,  and 
where  tyres  are  used  which  have  very  stiff  beads,  or  if  an  armoured 
tube  is  used,  it  may  be  attached  to  a  specially  mounted  rim  secured 
to  the  felloe  of  the  normal  road  wheel.  The  device  is  applicable 
to  wire  wheels,  and  it  may  be  adopted  simply  as  an  extra  non-skid 
should  the  motorist  desire  to  alter  the  character  of  his  tyres  without 
troubling  to  change  the  existing  covers.  This  is  a  cheap  and  simple 
device,  and  entails  a  minimum  of  complication. 

The  spare  wheel  may  also  be  attached  by  clips  fastened  directly 
between  the  spokes,  and  in  order  that  it  shall  always  be  dependable 


TYRES 


277 


it  is  wise  to  use  only  sound  covers  and  tubes  on  the  spare  wheel,  so 
that  it  is  always  ready  for  use.  As  the  device  increases  the  normal 
track  of  the  car,  the  usual  mudguards  are  insufficient  in  width,  and 
a  temporary  side  attachment  may  be  utilized  which  buttons  on  to 
the  outside  of  the  existing  wing. 

The  remaining  contrivances  may  be  classed  under  the  headings 
of  detachable  wheels,  rims,  and  flanges. 

The  detachable  wheel  is  made  possible  by  providing  the  axle 
arm  with  a  double  shell  to  the  hub,  the  permanent  hub  having 
projecting  pins  which  transmit  the  drive  from  corresponding  holes 
in  the  wheel  hub,  or  by  means  of  keys  engaging  with  slots.  The 
wheel  is  retained  in  position  by  a  cap  screwing  into  an  extension  of 
the  inner  hub,  usually  a  rachet  device  being  adopted  which  securely 
locks  the  wheel,  and  in  some  cases  the  wheel  is  automatically 
removed  as  the  cap  is  unscrewed  by  the  special  spanner,  and  vice 
versa.  By  means  of  the  spare  wheel  a  ready  inflated  tyre  may  be 
carried,  and  the  change  when  made  is  permanent  until  the  next 
puncture.  The  advantage  gained  is  that  there  is  no  need  to 
reinforce  the  wheel  at  the  rim,  but  only  at  its  smaller  part — the 
hub,  but  the  complete  spare  wheel  is  naturally  heavier  and  bulkier 
to  carry.  A  wheel  is  usually  easier  to  carry  than  a  rim,  but  often 
four  wheels  with  detachable  rims  and  a  spare  are  heavier  than  a 
corresponding  set  of  detachable  wheels. 

The  detachable  rim  may  be  had  in  many  varieties,  for  both  single 
and  twin  tyres,  pneumatic  or  solid.  It  usually  entails  a  bonding 
band,  sometimes  bevelled  to  provide  a  wedging  surface,  to  keep  the 
spokes  in  place  while  the  rim  is  removed,  and  the  pattern  adopted 
should  be  carefully  designed  so  that  wet  does  not  easily  get  in  and  cause 
rust,  so  preventing  detachment  when  required,  and  it  is  an  advantage 
if  the  security  bolts  are  readily  accessible.  It  is  advisable  to  remove 
detachable  rims,  say  once  a  fortnight,  in  order  that  proper  lubrica¬ 
tion  with  castor  oil  shall  be  ensured.  Some  rims,  by  reason  of  their 
being  split  circumferentially  or  into  segments,  allow  of  particularly 
easy  detachment,  and  attachment  of  the  tyre,  which  is  a  consider¬ 
able  advantage,  as  it  is  even  more  difficult  to  fit  a  cover  to  a  flimsy 
rim  unless  it  is  mounted  for  the  purpose  on  a  specially  designed 
stand,  which  may  form  the  dual  function  of  carrier  and  tyre  changer, 
because,  whether  rim  or  wheel,  the  cover  has  eventually  to  be 


278 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


removed.  Care  must  be  taken  of  the  rim  when  off  the  wheel,  so 
that  it  does  not  get  twisted  out  of  truth.  Some  rims  have  an 
expanding  and  contracting  device  which  aids  in  their  operation, 
eccentric  mechanism  usually  being  adopted. 

The  device  made  by  Messrs.  Moseley  and  Sons  consists  of  an 
outer  cover  with  wired  edges,  a  specially  shaped  rim,  which  receives 
on  its  outer  edges  a  retaining  band  or  tube,  cut  through  at  one 
point,  and  fitted  with  a  turn  buckle,  over  which  a  hinged  portion 
fits.  This  turn-buckle  is  operated  by  a  tommy  bar,  so  that  the 
retaining  piece  may  easily  be  contracted  and  expanded,  thereby 
making  the  removal  of  the  tyre  a  simple  matter. 

Detachable  rims  and  flanges  are  often  retained,  either  by  bolting 
through  the  felloe,  or  by  blocks  specially  provided  for  the  purpose, 
coupled  with  a  wedging  attachment  working  between  the  bonding 
band  and  the  rim  clinch. 

For  those  who  object  to  the  spare  wheel  or  rim  impeding  the 
entrance  to  the  driver’s  seat  from  the  offside,  a  compromise  may 
be  effected  by  mounting  the  wheel  farther  forward,  the  scuttle  dash, 
if  used,  being  specially  shaped  to  receive  the  tyre.  Also  the  spare 
may  be  carried  in  a  hinged  carrier,  so  that  it  may  be  swung  open 
like  a  gate  when  necessary.  Other  alternatives  consist  of  mounting 
the  wheel  at  the  rear,  or  in  a  special  tray  at  the  rear,  those 
chassis  which  are  wider  between  the  springs  than  the  height  of  the 
wheel  being  specially  suited  for  this  purpose,  or  it  may  be  strapped 
on  the  roof  if  it  is  a  covered  car.  If  two  spares  are  necessary  on  a 
long  trip,  a  tyre  should  be  chosen  which  is  compact  in  its  cross 
section,  a  point  on  which  some  types  of  wire  wheels  fail,  care  being- 
taken  to  see  that  no  part  of  the  tyre  or  wheel  chafes  against  the 
body  of  the  car  or  its  fittings. 

It  may  happen  that  an  unfortunate  motorist  has  expended  all 
his  resources  in  spare  tubes  and  covers,  and  is  stranded  on  a  deflated 
rim,  which  may  sometimes  occur  to  those  who  are  forgetful,  and 
leave  various  necessary  items  behind  in  the  motor  house.  The 
best  plan  is  to  ride  on  the  bare  rim  slowly  or  else  take  out  the  tube 
if  the  tools  are  not  forgotten  also,  and  stuff  the  cover  with  any 
available  substance,  such  as  grass,  clean  rags,  and  so  on. 

Tyre  Fillings . — Apart  from  the  use  of  detachable  rims  and 
wheels  to  decrease  the  nuisance  of  tyre  changing,  there  has  been 


TYRES 


279 


some  activity  in  providing  means  for  preventing  rather  than  curing 
the  trouble  of  punctures.  Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the 
use  of  armoured  inner  tubes,  but  in  addition  to  this,  the  inner  tube 
may  be  done  away  with  and  various  fluids  injected  into  an  air-tight 
cover,  which  become,  after  solidification,  more  or  less  spongy  and 
elastic.  Some  of  these  compounds  have  the  disadvantage  of 
becoming  soft  and  useless  under  the  rolling  action  of  the  wheel 
and  the  load,  besides  working  up  into  flat  places.  Most  of  them 
are  unaffected  by  small  punctures,  but  should  a  serious  one  happen, 
or  if  it  is  required  to  change  the  cover  for  any  reason,  the  filling 
has  to  be  renewed.  The  filling  is  usually  a  little  more  expensive 
than  the  ordinary  inner  tube,  besides  slightly  heavier — a  few 
pounds — pei^  wheel.  These  fillings,  by  reason  of  their  weight, 
tend  to  stretch  the  cover,  and  they  demand  a  special  lining  to 
the  cover  so  that  it  shall  be  reasonably  air-tight. 

Fluids  and  powders  are  sometimes  forced  through  the  ordinary 
valve  to  fill  small  punctures,  and  prevent  the  air  from  escaping. 
On  the  whole,  they  have  been  found  satisfactory,  and  allow  of  the 
proper  tyre  repair  being  delayed. 

The  tyre  filling  compounds  usually  contain  glycerine  with  the 
addition  of  gelatine,  sugar,  silicate  of  soda,  indiarubber,  starch, 
plaster  of  paris,  whiting,  chalk,  magnesia,  and  other  chemicals. 

Cushion  Tyres. — A  compromise  between  the  pneumatic  and  solid 
tyre,  which  has  some  of  the  advantages  of  both  varieties,  is  the 
cushion  tyre.  Various  forms  of  moulded  separate  air-chamber  pneu¬ 
matics  might  be  classed  under  this  heading,  but  the  usual  pattern 
consists  of  a  solid  tyre  with  a  hole  or  holes  formed  near  the  base, 
or  the  tyre  may  be  in  the  form  of  an  arch,  or  be  pierced  in  other 
ways.  These  tyres  are  naturally  heavier  than  pneumatic  tyres,  but 
are  lighter  than  solids,  have  immunity  from  puncture,  and  are 
specially  suited  for  fast-running  commercial  vehicles.  If  the  air 
chamber  is  large,  a  canvas  foundation  may  be  added  to  give  strength. 
The  Torkington  tyre  is  a  solid  tyre  having  a  chain  or  articulated 
band  embedded  just  below  the  centre,  by  which  it  is  retained  on 
the  rim,  and  the  normal  section  is  3^  ins.  deep  from  tread  to  base, 
which  exceeds  considerably  the  usual  dimension  of  this  class  of  tyre. 
It  has  been  adopted  for  taxicabs,  where  the  cost  factor  is  a  serious 
problem. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 


SPRINGS 

The  Function  of  Springs. — The  springs  on  which  the  car  is 
suspended  are  provided  to  minimize  the  shocks  the  moving  vehicle 
is  repeatedly  meeting  owing  to  the  inequalities  of  the  road.  Broadly 
considered,  the  springs  perform  the  same  function  as  in  a  horse- 
drawn  carriage,  the  extra  road  vibration  set  up  owing  to  the  greater 
speed  being  absorbed  by  the  rubber  tyres.  A  smoothly  travelling 
car  means  comfort  for  the  passengers,  longer  life  to  the  several 
parts  of  the  chassis  and  body  work,  and  economy  of  engine  power. 
The  springs  form  the  direct  connection  between  the  frame  and  the 
axles,  so  that  the  shocks,  transmitted  by  the  wheels,  pass  through 
them,  and  are  absorbed  in  varying  degrees  by  the  springs,  according 
to  their  design  and  material. 

Types  Used. — A  spring  is  made  up  of  a  number  of  thin  plates 
of  steel  in  contact  of  different  lengths,  and  the  following  varieties 
are  used : — 

{a)  The  elbow  spring.  This  is  supported  at  one  end  and  carries 
the  load  at  the  other.  It  is  the  simplest  type,  and  may  be  con¬ 
sidered  as  the  one  from  which  all  the  other  patterns  have  been 
evolved.  It  is  seldom  used  alone  in  automobile  construction,  but  is 
well  suited  to  cars  of  special  design,  such  as  New  Engine  Co.’s  car, 
where  the  whole  body  is  well  within  the  wheelbase,  while  there 
are  a  few  cars  of  the  ordinary  type  suspended  at  the  rear  on  elbow 
springs. 

(h)  The  side,  half  or  semi-elliptic,  grasshopper,  horizontal  or 
double-elbow  spring.  This  is  the  most  popular  variety  used,  especially 
for  the  front  axle  ;  is  the  easiest  and  cheapest  to  mount,  and  if 
properly  designed  gives  the  most  satisfaction.  It  is  supported  at 
its  centre  on  the  axle,  and  carries  the  weight  at  either  end.  An 


SPRINGS 


281 


inverted  half-elliptic  spring  is  often  used  as  a  cross  spring  joining 
two  side  springs  by  means  of  shackles  to  form  the  hind  suspension 
of  the  chassis.  Such  a  combination  of  three  springs  is  widely  used 
on  two-wheeled  horse  vehicles  of  all  descriptions,  and  is  the  typical 
mounting  of  the  Dennett  gig.  Sometimes  this  arrangement  of 
springs  is  called  a  “  platform  ”  suspension,  but  this  is  strictly  the 
name  given  to  a  rectangular  combination  of  four  springs,  two  side 
and  two  cross,  as  used  with  a  four-in-hand  drag.  A  cross  spring 
alone  is  used  sometimes  for  the  front  suspension,  as  in  the  Rover, 
Sizaire-Naudin,  and  some  racing  cars,  so  that  a  balance,  or  three- 
point  suspension,  is  obtained. 

(c)  The  elliptic  spring.  This  consists  of  one  side  spring  inverted 
over  another.  The  road  shocks  are  transmitted  from  the  lower  to 
the  top  half  so  that  a  greater  degree  of  resilience  is  given.  This 
type  is  supported  in  the  centre  of  the  lower  half,  and  receives  the 
weight  directly  over  it  in  the  centre  of  the  top  half.  This  method 
of  attachment  is  less  satisfactory  than  that  of  the  side  spring,  which 
has  two  points  of  fixing  to  the  frame.  The  depth  of  this  spring 
overall  does  not  allow  of  a  low-hung  chassis  unless  special  provision 
is  made.  It  has  been,  and  is  used  on  a  few  cars  for  the  hind 
suspension,  and  there  are  varieties  having  scrolls  and  shackles 
either  at  one  or  both  ends. 

(cl)  The  three-quarter  elliptic  spring.  This  usually  has  a  scroll 
to  the  hind  end,  and  is  a  combination  of  an  elbow  and  a  side  spring. 
It  is  very  fashionable  for  the  hind  suspension,  and  allows  of  the  use 
of  a  shorter  frame,  as  with  an  elliptic  spring,  but  it  is  liable  to  be 
weak  at  the  scroll,  is  often  so  badly  placed  as  to  interfere  with  the 
bodywork,  and  has  little  advantage  over  a  properly  made  side  spring 
except  the  greater  length  more  compactly  arranged.  This  is  the 
main  argument  advanced  for  the  use  of  all  springs  in  combination, 
and  in  the  case  of  two  side  and  a  cross  spring,  as  seen  in  the  hind 
suspension,  this  is  apt  to  set  up  side  sway  owing  to  the  freedom 
allowed  at  the  shackles. 

(e)  The  C  spring.  This,  if  a  true  C  spring,  is  used  in  addition 
to  the  usual  chassis  springs,  to  give  extra  comfort  by  reason  of  the 
body  being  suspended  by  leather  braces.  The  body  may  be  hung 
at  the  rear  on  a  pair  of  imitation  C  springs,  in  which  case  the  body 
is  not  isolated  from  the  driving  seat.  The  chassis  being  seldom 


282 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


designed  for  these  springs,  the  hind  pair  are  usually  unsightly  in 
their  isolation,  while,  owing  to  the  exigencies  of  the  chassis,  the 
front  ones  have  to  be  placed  much  lower  than  the  hind  ones.  The 
more  upright  a  spring  is,  the  less  ease  it  gives,  so  that  C  springs  are 
not  in  themselves  ideal,  but  the  luxurious  suspension  obtained  is 
owing  to  the  shocks  having  to  be  transmitted,  first,  through  the 
lower  springs,  and  then  by  way  of  the  C  springs  and  the  leather 
braces  on  which  the  body  is  suspended.  It  is  usual  to  provide 
means  so  that  the  body  sway  shall  be  within  limits.  As  the  body 
is  hung  between  the  braces,  this  corresponds  to  the  ideal  hanging, 
that  is,  the  weight  or  load  is  between  the  points  of  support.  Other 
patterns  of  springs  on  a  chassis  generally  mean  that  most  of  the 
load  is  over  the  support. 

When  an  obstacle  is  encountered  on  the  road  a  spring  moves 
upwards  or  away  from  it,  first  quickly,  and  then  slower,  until  it 
momentarily  comes  to  a  state  of  rest,  after  which  it  again  moves 
downwards  or  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  movement  of  the  spring 
being  accelerated,  the  loss  and  gain  of  speed  in  either  case  being 
largely  controlled  by  the  friction  set  up  between  the  spring  plates. 

Other  combinations  of  springs  are  those  which  have  scroll  ends, 
and  arrangements  of  spiral  and  helical  springs,  which  are  placed  so 
as  to  absorb  the  smaller  shocks,  or  to  dampen  the  effect  of  larger 
ones  before  or  after  they  reach  the  main  springs.  Helical  springs 
may  be  mounted  at  the  eyes  so  that  torsional  strains  are  resisted,  at 
the  centre  of  the  spring  in  the  nature  of  a  check  (such  as  is  com¬ 
monly  used  in  horse-drawn  vans,  although  laminated  varieties  are 
often  used  in  this  instance),  and  incorporated  with  the  shackle 
movement,  this  last  type  being  favoured  on  many  American  cars 
and  on  the  English  Daimler  chassis.  Shock  absorbers,  mounted 
between  the  axle  and  the  chassis  frame,  perform  the  function  of 
auxiliary  springs,  but  their  action  usually  depends  on  friction  rather 
than  deflection. 

A  few  patterns  of  pneumatic  devices  have  been  invented  which 
seek  to  isolate  the  body  from  road  shocks  by  the  action  of  a  piston 
working  in  a  cylinder  of  air.  Such  an  arrangement  is  lighter  than 
a  corresponding  set  of  springs,  and  it  is  even  claimed  that  solid 
tyres  may  be  used,  but  the  hind  cylinders  interfere  somewhat  with 
the  lower  body  construction.  These  pneumatic  and  other  devices, 


SPRINGS 


283 

however,  make  excellent  auxiliary  springs,  as  they  control  the  move¬ 
ment  of  the  main  springs,  which  may  be  important  when  travelling 
over  bad  roads,  or  if  it  is  a  style  of  body  in  which  the  clearances  between 
the  tyres  and  wings  are  limited.  Further  comfort  for  the  passengers, 
in  any  case,  may  be  obtained  by  the  method  employed  in  mounting 
the  bottom  frame  of  the  body  on  the  chassis,  and  the  construction 
of  the  seat  cushions,  and  other  parts  of  the  trimming. 

Methods  of  Attachment. — The  spring  is  attached  to  the  axle  by 
means  of  two  clips,  which  pass  round  the  bundle  of  plates,  the 
screwed  ends  of  the  clips  passing  through  the  holes  drilled  in  a  flap 
forged  in  the  solid  with  the  axle,  or  its  equivalent  afterwards  attached. 
A  rivet  is  inserted  to  keep  the  plates  together  in  the  centre.  The 
ends  of  the  spring  are  attached  in  various  ways  according  to  their 
design.  With  the  side  spring,  the  extreme  limits  of  the  side 
members  of  the  chassis  are  largely  dependent  on  the  length  of 
springs  to  be  adopted,  although  separate  dumb  irons  may  be  attached, 
and,  if  the  axles  are  towards  the  ends  of  the  chassis,  it  will  mean  a 
great  amount  of  projection  at  each  end,  if  long  springs  are  to  be 
used.  The  inner  ends  of  the  side  springs  are  fastened  in  various 
ways ;  usually  there  is  a  lug  or  eye,  which  may  be  fastened  under  the 
bottom  flange  of  the  frame  for  the  front  suspension,  or  by  a  small 
plate  to  the  web  of  the  frame,  for  both  the  front  and  hind  springs. 
Three-quarter  and  full  elliptic  springs,  when  used  for  the  rear  sus¬ 
pension,  require  their  upper  portions  to  be  fixed  by  means  of  some 
special  bracket  to  the  top  flange  of  the  frame,  or  it  may  be  so  arranged 
that  an  extension  of  the  hind  cross  member  performs  that  office. 
This  method  of  fixing  also  ensures  that  the  hind  springs  are  well 
out  of  the  way  of  the  bodywork. 

When  the  load  is  applied  to  the  spring  it  is  said  to  lengthen,  or 
what  is  perhaps  more  correct  to  say,  it  assumes  an  outline  of  greater 
radius,  consequently  the  two  ends  are  farther  apart,  unless  the 
spring  is  compassed  at  either  end,  then  the  gain  in  length  is  very  little. 
To  allow  for  this  end  movement,  one  or  both  ends  must  be  given 
freedom  to  move.  With  a  side  spring  the  hind  end  is  shackled  or 
coupled  to  a  second  centre,  and  in  an  elliptic  spring  its  construction 
entails  the  use  of  a  hinge  at  either  end.  The  parts  of  a  shackle 
should  alwaj^s  be  in  tension,  so  that  in  hanging  a  spring,  the  shackle 
must  be  so  arranged  that  when  unloaded  the  straight  line  drawn 


284 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


through  the  two  centres  of  the  shackle  leans  inwards  towards  the 
centre  of  the  spring,  and  when  the  maximum  load  is  on,  the  line, 
just  mentioned,  should  not  be  beyond  the  perpendicular.  If  the 
shackle  centres  are  above  one  another  when  the  car  is  empty,  it  will 
probably  mean  that  when  loaded,  and  the  car  meets  with  a  large 
obstruction  on  the  road,  the  shackle  will  be  forced  against  the  scroll 
or  other  iron  which  supports  it,  or  else  be  jolted  over  into  the  reverse 
direction  of  its  proper  working.  In  place  of  this  type  of  shackle,  a 
variety  of  universal  joint  may  be  used  which  allows  of  a  similar 
amount  of  movement  to  that  of  a  D  shackle  as  adopted  in  the  hind 
suspension  when  two  side  and  a  cross  spring  are  used. 

Springs  are  not  mounted  quite  horizontal,  but  pitched  down  at 
the  back  end  about  one  inch.  This  enables  the  spring  to  meet  the 
shocks  more  squarely,  and  prevents  the  chassis  dipping  down  in 
front.  It  has  also  been  recommended  that  the  front  springs  should 
be  mounted  with  the  greater  half  towards  the  rear,  so  that  there  is 
less  spring  movement  in  front  to  influence  the  steering,  while  an 
opposite  arrangement  is  suggested  for  the  hind  spring  when  there  are 
no  radius  rods.  Radius  rods  are  used  to  keep  the  axle  in  its  proper 
relative  position  to  the  frame,  and  when  they  are  absent,  it  imposes 
an  extra  strain  on  the  back  plate  of  the  hind  spring,  causing  it  to 
straighten  towards  the  back  end.  It  is  an  advantage  if  the  spring 
has  freedom  to  swivel  about  its  support,  especially  with  a  live-axle 
car,  as  the  turning  movement  is  constantly  pressing  against  the 
front  end,  a  problem  which  does  not  occur  with  a  horse  carriage, 
which  is  practically  a  trailer  car  behind  the  horse. 

Apart  from  the  considerations  just  mentioned,  the  ideal  to  strive 
for  would  seem  to  be  that  each  half  shall  perform  its  work  without 
any  tendency  to  pull  on  the  axle  or  revolve  it,  which  strain  must  be 
present  if  the  two  halves  are  working  unequally.  With  a  spring 
which  has  a  fancy  scroll,  it  becomes  difficult  to  decide  where  to 
divide  the  spring  so  that  a  balance  of  forces  shall  be  preserved. 

The  camber  or  span  given  to  the  spring  controls  to  a  large  extent 
the  height  of  the  chassis  from  the  ground.  A  low  step  may  be 
obtained  by  cranking  down  the  frame  in  the  centre,  but  another 
method  is  to  place  the  frame  below  the  springs,  or  to  put  the 
springs  below  the  axle  as  in  the  Renault  car. 

Spring  Steel. — The  best  Swedish  iron  is  the  most  suitable  material 


SPRINGS 


285 


from  which  to  make  spring  steel,  as  it  is  made  from  ores  purer  than 
our  native  ones,  and  is  smelted  with  charcoal,  which  has  less  sulphur 
and  other  impurities  in  it  than  other  fuels.  The  steel  is  made  by 
the  cementation  process.  The  wrought  iron  is  hammered  into  flat 
bars,  which  are  heated  for  several  days  at  a  temperature  of  about 
1400°  F.  in  contact  with  charcoal  in  boxes,  the  tops  of  which  are 
cemented  to  exclude  air.  The  cemented  bars,  which  are  brittle, 
crystalline,  and  more  or  less  covered  with  blisters,  hence  the  term 
“  blister  steel  ”,  are  broken,  sorted,  melted  in  a  crucible  at  an  orange- 
red  heat,  and  with  proper  precautions,  poured  in  prepared  moulds, 
so  as  to  form  ingots  which  can  be  rolled  or  hammered  into  the 
shapes  desired.  The  longer  the  process  is  continued,  the  higher 
the  percentage  of  carbon  the  steel  will  contain. 

The  Cementation  Process. — In  the  cementation  process  the  carbon 
is  first  taken  away  from  the  pig  iron,  and  then  about  half  of  it  is 
put  back  again,  or  in  other  words  cast-iron  is  made  into  wrought- 
iron,  and  then  into  steel  by  re-carbonizing  it.  The  difference  between 
steel  and  pig-iron  or  cast-iron  is  not  a  clearly  defined  one,  but  it  is 
convenient  to  say  that  it  depends  on  a  certain  proportion  of  carbon, 
and  with  steel  the  capability  of  being  hardened  and  tempered.  The 
proportion  of  carbon  in  steel  may  vary  from  ^  to  2  per  cent.  The 
cementation  process  is  carried  out  in  a  furnace  which  has  a  cone- 
shaped  roof,  and  is  rectangular  in  shape.  Herein  are  placed  the 
brick  converting  chests,  while  a  fireplace  is  arranged  underneath 
and  between  them,  the  flames  being  distributed  by  means  of  flues. 
The  chests  are  filled  with  alternate  layers  of  charcoal  and  bars,  a 
layer  of  charcoal  being  at  top  and  bottom,  over  which  a  cementing 
layer  of  siliceous  material  is  finally  placed.  The  process  takes  from 
a  week  to  a  week  and  a  half,  according  to  the  character  of  steel 
required. 

Special  Spring  Steels. —  Chrome-vanadium  and  silico  manganese 
steels  are  now  often  used  for  the  springs  of  high-grade  cars. 
Vanadium  steel  is  an  excellent  material  to  use,  because  it  is  tough 
and  strong,  and  is  not  so  liable  to  snap  as  carbon  steel ;  in  fact,  it  is 
claimed  that  an  overloaded  spring  will  only  bend  should  it  from 
any  cause  be  so  treated.  All  the  chrome-vanadium  steels  have 
the  power  to  resist  the  crystallizing  action  of  long-continued  use. 
The  amount  of  heat  used,  the  period  over  which  the  temperature  is 


286 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


maintained,  and  the  method  of  tempering  used,  are  all  the  result  of 
much  scientific  investigation,  and  the  materials  used  in  this  and 
other  parts  of  the  chassis  have  assisted  very  largely  in  making 
possible  the  reliable  and  low  weight-per-horse-power  cars  of  to-day. 

Chromium  in  small  quantities  raises  the  tensile  strength  of  the 
steel,  vanadium  has  a  similar  but  more  powerful  influence,  and 
increases  the  elastic  limit.  In  all  cases  the  right  proportion  has 
to  be  properly  controlled,  as  an  excess  has  the  effect  of  defeating 
the  object  in  view.  Vanadium  alone  does  not  alter  the  steel  much, 
but  when  the  chromium  is  added  a  distinct  improvement  in  the 
character  of  the  metal  results.  When  melting  the  charge  in  the 
crucible  the  chromium  is  added  first,  the  vanadium  following  when 
the  metal  is  about  half  melted. 

Ordinary  spring  steel  has  the  following  composition  per  cent., 
in  addition  to  the  iron  contained : — Carbon,  0*5  to  0*6  ;  silicon, 
0-2  to  0*8;  manganese,  0*4  to  0*7;  phosphorus,  0*04  to  0*07; 
sulphur,  0*025  to  0*05. 

Special  steels  must  be  as  free  as  possible  from  nitrogen  and 
phosphorus,  and  contain  less  silicon  than  the  above  figures. 

The  Length  of  Springs. — The  longer  and  more  horizontal  the 
spring  the  easier  will  be  its  action.  The  number  and  thickness 
of  the  plates  will  vary  according  to  the  load  and  strength  of  spring 
required.  It  is  therefore  quite  as  important  to  know  the  load  per 
axle  as  it  is  for  the  pneumatic  tyres,  but  careful  calculations  are 
not  always  entered  into,  and  the  type  of  spring  used  is  often  the 
result  of  trial  and  error.  With  a  horse  vehicle  the  carriage  builder 
knows  within  a  very  little  the  amount  which  has  to  be  carried 
by  each  spring,  but  in  the  case  of  a  car,  although  the  spring  may 
have  been  designed  for  a  particular  body,  it  does  not  follow  that 
this  will  be  mounted,  and  dissatisfaction  does  occur  owing  to  the 
purchaser  not  realizing  these  conditions.  As  pointed  out  previously, 
springs  are  used  in  conjunction,  so  as  to  get  a  good  length  of  spring 
without  detracting  from  the  compactness  of  the  chassis.  The  cross 
spring  requires  a  stout  stay  to  connect  its  centre  with  the  hind  cross 
member  of  the  frame. 

Considerations  as  to  Strength. — The  strength  of  a  spring  varies 
directly  as  the  breadth  of  its  plates,  so  that  one  with  plates  14  ins. 
wide  has  half  the  strength  of  one  with  plates  3  ins.  wide,  also  it  is 


SPRINGS 


287 

determined  by  the  thickness  of  the  plates,  the  strength  being 
increased  as  the  square  of  the  thickness,  so  that  one  in.  thick 
is  four  times  as  strong  as  one  in.  thick.  From  this  it  will  be 
seen  that  in  increasing  the  stoutness  of  the  chassis  suspension,  we 
have  a  choice  between  increasing  the  width  and  the  thickness  of 
the  plates,  the  gauge  being  the  more  powerful  factor.  There  is 
yet  another  way  of  adding  to  the  stiffness,  for  the  strength  of  a 
spring  also  varies  inversely  as  its  length,  and  directly  as  the  number 
of  plates,  so  that  a  spring  4  ft.  long  with  six  plates  is  of  the  same 
strength  as  one  2  ft.  long  with  twelve  plates,  and  one  3  ft.  long 
with  five  plates  is  half  as  strong  as  a  spring  of  the  same  length 
with  ten  plates,  the  plates  being  of  the  same  gauge  and  width 
throughout  in  the  instances  mentioned. 

The  most  important  plate  of  the  spring  is  the  back  one,  which 
first  receives  the  weight,  and  is  on  top  of  a  side  spring,  and  at  the 
bottom  of  the  top  half  of  an  elliptic  spring,  or  the  elbow  portion 
of  a  J  elliptic  spring.  This  plate  has  the  eyes  at  the  end  of  it, 
which  receive  the  bolts  by  means  of  which  the  spring  is  swung  on 
the  chassis  in  the  front,  and  to  the  shackle  at  the  rear.  The  fact 
that  the  eyes  are  welded  on  decides  in  some  measure  the  analysis 
of  the  steel  used,  unless  the  back  plate  is  made  of  a  special  material. 
The  next  plate  is  thinned  at  the  ends,  so  that  it  may  be  wound 
round  the  eyes  of  the  spring ;  the  next  one  usually  is  tapered  so 
as  just  to  touch  the  spring  eye  at  its  extremities,  while  the  remaining 
plates  are  cut  off  in  gradually  decreasing  lengths  until  the  short 
plate  is  reached.  The  plates  are  fitted  so  that  they  touch  the  next 
one  at  the  ends  first,  before  the  spring  is  put  together,  which  method 
ensures  their  contact  along  their  whole  length,  more  so  than  if  the 
whole  series  of  plates  were  got  out  from  radii  having  the  same  centre. 
Apart  from  mere  ability  to  resist  fracture,  the  spring  has  to  be 
designed  with  a  view  to  its  proper  deflection  without  taking  a 
permanent  set,  or  alteration  in  shape,  which  suggests  that  if  the 
spring  is  over-loaded  it  will  not  return  to  its  original  shape,  in 
which  state  it  cannot  perform  its  functions  properly.  One  of  the 
common  symptoms  of  an  abused  spring  is  the  opening  up  of  the 
plates,  which  having  been  strained  do  not  return  and  lie  along 
the  neighbouring  ones. 

The  deflection  of  a  spring  varies  in  direct  proportion  to  the  load, 


288 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


the  square  of  its  length,  and  inversely  as  its  thickness,  therefore  a 
2  ft.  spring  deflects  an  inch  under  a  certain  load,  a  3  ft.  spring 

will  deflect  - - -  -  2£  ins.  under  the  same  load  if  the  springs  in 

2X2 

question  are  of  the  same  thickness.  If,  however,  a  spring  is  1^  in. 
thick,  and  another  3  ins.  thick,  then  the  deflection  of  the  thicker 
spring  will  be  half  that  of  the  thinner  one.  The  remaining  con¬ 
sideration  is  simply  that  if  two  similar  springs  have  to  sustain 
one  and  two  cwts.  respectively,  the  one  under  the  heavier  load  will 
deflect  double  that  of  the  other. 

Closely  bound  up  with  the  power  of  a  spring  to  deflect  is  its 
ability  to  spring  back  to  its  former  position,  that  is  its  resilience, 
which  enables  it  to  absorb  the  vibrations  and  shocks  encountered. 
This  quality  is,  of  course,  first  determined  by  the  grade  of  steel 
used,  and  secondly  by  the  weight  of  the  spring,  so  that  if  the 
weight  is  doubled  the  shock-absorbing  power  is  doubled  also. 
The  laminated  construction  of  the  spring,  setting  up  friction,  also 
assists  the  resilience.  The  formula  on  which  calculations  are 
based  is  that  of  D.  K.  Clark  for  locomotive  springs,  which  is  as 
follows : — 


Where — 

W  =  working  load  in  tons. 
b  =  breadth  of  plates  in  inches. 
t  =  thickness  of  each  plate  in  inches. 
n  =  number  of  plates. 
f  =  maximum  stress  in  tons. 

L  =  length  of  spring  between  centres  of  eyes  in  inches. 

The  constant  /  is  reckoned  by  various  authorities  between  11 
and  15.  Taking  the  mean  of  13,  the  above  formula  may  then 
be  worked  out  either  to  find  the  number  or  thickness  of  plates, 
the  length,  and  so  on.  This  allowance  for  safety  may  be  recognized 
as  sufficient  if  high-class  vanadium  spring  steel  is  taken  as  the 
material  to  be  used. 

If  the  working  load  on  a  spring  is  J  tons,  and  it  is  convenient 
to  arrange  for  a  39  ins.  spring,  2  ins.  wide  and  with  eight  plates, 


SPRINGS 


289 


then  their  proper  thickness  can  be  ascertained  by  first  working 
out  the  value  of  t  in  the  equation  given,  and  then  substituting 
the  values  given. 


W 


=  .*.  WL  =  fbfn 


t2  = 


L 

WL 

fbn 


WL 


.  /  V\ 

•••*  =  v 

1  x  39 


WL 


fbn 

-  1 


fbn  8  X  13  x  2  x  8 
♦  f  -  -v/TT  _.  1 

.  .  I  —  v  1  6  —  4 


1  0 


Or  to  take  another  example,  what  load  will  a  spring  36  ins. 
long,  2  J  ins.  wide,  6  plates  g9^  ins.  thick,  sustain  with  safety  ? 


13  x  9  x  81  x  6 
4~x  32  X  32  X  36 


13  x  9  x  81  x  6 
'U  4  x  32  x  32  x  36 

=  *ons  =  7  cwt.  2  qrs.  23^  lbs. 
8192 


Manufacture  of  Springs.— Few  vehicle  springs  are  made  through¬ 
out  by  hand  now-a-days,  although  a  smith  who  can  make  a  spring 
is  of  considerable  service  in  a  shop  where  repairs  are  carried  out. 
The  back  plate  usually  receives  attention  first,  and  it  is  generally 
the  thickest  as  well  as  the  longest  plate  used.  In  cutting  the 
plates  to  length,  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  length  of  the 
plate  on  the  curve,  for  the  long  plate  the  curl  round  the  eye 
and  with  the  other  leaves  the  amount  which  will  be  added  if 
they  are  drawn  out  at  the  ends.  Sometimes  the  eyes  are  welded 
on,  in  any  case  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  bolt  holes 

are  square  with  the  length  of  the  plate. 

In  cutting  the  remaining  plates  to  length  the  allowance  made 
for  drawing  out  the  end  is  usually  If  ins.,  and  2  ins.  for  the  short 
plate,  which  requires  to  be  a  little  thinner  at  the  ends  in  order 
to  give  it  a  sufficient  amount  of  elasticity  to  compensate  for  its 
shortness.  If  the  several  plates  are  drawn  down  to  a  gradual 
taper  the  strength  of  the  spring,  it  is  claimed,  is  uniformly 
increased  from  end  to  centre,  whereas  if  the  ends  be  cut  off 
sharply,  the  spring  would  tend  to  be  jerky  and  irregular  in 

u 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


290 

action  owing  to  the  thicker  parts  intercepting  at  every  few  inches. 
Some  spring  designers  advocate  simply  pointing  the  ends  without 
decreasing  the  thickness. 

Drawing,  or  thinning  the  plates  at  the  ends,  is  usually  done 
by  a  machine  which  has  a  top  concentric  roll  and  a  bottom 
eccentric  one,  so  that  there  is  a  space  between  the  rolls  at  one 
position  when  the  plate  can  be  inserted,  while  the  further  revolu¬ 
tion  of  the  eccentric  roll  bears  on  the  plate  and  tapeis  it.  Spring 
plates  are  often  sheared  to  length,  cut  to  shape  at  the  ends,  and 
provided  with  nibs  and  slits  all  in  the  same  machine.  In  bending 
the  back  plate  is  first  held  to  a  template  by  two  or  more  paiis 
of  tongs,  and  each  succeeding  plate  is  fitted  so  that  it  touches 
at  the  ends  with  a  clearance  of  about  |  in.  in  the  centre  for  reasons 
already  mentioned. 

The  nibs  and  slits  are  provided  so  that  the  plates  shall  work 
in  line  over  one  another,  and  the  slits  must  be  long  enough  to 
allow  of  the  horizontal  movement  of  the  plates.  In  forming  these 
holes  and  projections  great  care  is  necessary,  as  flaws  may  easily 
be  started,  and  the  drawn-out  end  of  the  plate  is  a  more  suitable 
position  than  near  the  centre,  as  it  is  more  elastic.  In  an  elliptic 
or  three-quarter  elliptic  spring,  however,  it  is  usual  to  hide  one 
slot  by  the  plate  above,  so  as  to  be  less  unsightly  and  assist  in 
keeping  out  the  wet,  so  far  as  the  upper  portion  of  the  spring  is 
concerned.  The  centre  rivet  hole  should  be  drilled  so  as  to  guard 
against  the  dangers  attendant  on  punching. 

Hardening  and  Tempering. — Each  spring  plate  has  its  edges 
ground,  and  the  nibs  and  slits  finished  off  by  filing.  It  is  then 
ready  for  hardening,  which  is  carried  out  by  plunging  the  plates 
into  either  cold  water  or  oil,  after  which  they  are  let  down  or 
tempered  by  partially  re-heating  to  a  dull  red.  The  temperature 
at  which  the  steel  is  plunged  is  usually  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
1425°  F.  From  tests  made  it  would  appear  that  plunging  in 
water  has  the  effect  of  raising  the  elastic  limit  more  than  using 
oil  for  this  purpose,  as  it  is  not  so  good  a  conductor  of  heat, 
but  a  more  important  consideration  is  the  heat  used  in  the  subse¬ 
quent  tempering.  The  higher  the  temper  is  drawn,  the  lower 
the  elastic  limit  falls,  a  good  average  temperature  being  750°  F. 
The  heat  treatment  of  steel  is  a  delicate  operation,  and  requires 


SPRINGS 


291 

considerable  accuracy  if  uniform  and  reliable  results  are  to  be 
obtained. 

When  hardened  the  steel  is  very  brittle,  and  the  subsequent 
re-heating  has  the  effect  of  making  the  steel  softer  and  more 
elastic.  Different  degrees  of  heat,  which  are  associated  with 
varying  colours  exhibited  by  the  heated  metal,  are  required  for 
various  articles.  In  the  case  of  a  surgical  knife,  little  of  the 
brittleness  will  be  removed  in  order  to  ensure  a  keen  edge,  while 
a  saw  will  require  to  be  softer,  and  so  on  until  we  come  to  springs, 
where  resilience  and  not  a  cutting  edge  is  required. 

The  final  process  consists  in  testing  the  spring,  and  it  is 
subjected  to  a  far  greater  load  and  deflection  than  it  would  meet 
with  in  actual  practice. 

Spring  Dimensions. — In  deciding  the  dimensions  of  the  springs 
there  are  several  points  to  be  considered.  The  position  of  the 
point  of  attachment  will  affect  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
car,  while  the  stability  will  also  be  determined  by  the  width  over 
the  springs.  Not  only  should  the  maximum  load  be  known,  but 
the  disposal  of  it.  In  ascertaining  the  load  which  has  to  be 
carried,  the  weight  of  the  springs  and  wheels  and  all  parts  directly 
connected  to  the  axle  must  be  deducted.  This  is  the  unsprung 
weight,  and  when  there  is  a  gear  box  as  well  as  a  differential 
gear  case  supported  on  the  hind  axle,  this  is  claimed  by  the 
supporters  of  the  chain  driven  car  to  be  a  disadvantage,  but  so 
far  no  great  difference  in  the  riding  comfort  of  chain  and  cardan 
driven  types  of  cars  has  been  yet  proclaimed. 

A  large  landaulette  with  pressure  fed  carburretor,  which  at 
times  will  have  the  head  open,  and  is  also  provided  with  a  luggage 
carrier  at  the  rear,  will  have  more  weight  on  the  hind  springs  than 
a  short  side  entrance  phaeton,  which  has  its  petrol  tank  under  the 
driving  seat  and  no  luggage  carrier.  Although  two  cars  may  have 
equally  strong  springs,  yet  the  one  which  only  carries  a  full  load 
on  rare  occasions,  will  require  more  deflecting  power  in  the  hind 
springs.  The  load  is  generally  more  or  less  constant  on  the  front 
springs,  therefore  they  may  be  shorter  and  stiffer  than  the  hind 
ones.  Speed  and  horsepower  should  also  control  the  design  of 
the  springs,  likewise  the  general  character  of  the  roads  which  will  be 
traversed. 


292 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


The  following  tables  of  sizes  will  be  found  useful  in  ascertaining 
approximately  the  lengths  required,  once  the  load  has  been 
ascertained. 


W eight  of 
complete 
car  (no  pas¬ 
sengers). 

i 

Length  in  inches. 

Width  of  leaves  in 
inches. 

Camber  (centre  of 
eyes  to  main  plate) 
in  inches. 

N  umber  of  plates. 

Front. 

Hind. 

Front. 

Hind. 

Front. 

Hind. 

Front. 

Hind. 

16  cwt. 

ea 

42 

' 

12 

If 

2 

2 

5 

5 

18 

36 

44 

if 

2 

2 

2 

5 

5 

20 

38 

46 

2 

2 

21 

2 

5 

5 

22 

,,  - 

38 

48 

2 

2 

21 

2 

5 

6 

24 

38 

50 

2 

21 

21 

21 

5 

6 

26 

99 

40 

52 

2 

21 

2i 

21 

5 

6 

28 

„ 

40 

54 

2} 

21 

21 

21 

6 

6 

30 

40 

56 

21 

21 

21 

21 

6 

7 

32 

9  9 

40 

56 

24 

21 

2f 

21 

6 

7 

34 

42 

58 

2-1 

21 

2  4 

21 

6 

7 

36 

42 

58 

21 

2i 

2f 

21 

6 

7 

40 

11 

42 

58 

2-1 

i 

2i 

2  4 

21 

6 

7 

When  two  side  and  a  cross  spring  are  used  in  conjunction  at 
the  rear,  the  side  springs  may  be  reckoned  at  the  same  length 
as  given  above,  the  cross  spring  averaging  40  ins.  in  most  cases. 
The  length  of  the  elbow  portion  of  a  three-quarter  elliptic  spring 

is  about  three-fifths  of  the  lower  part. 

The  following  gauges  are  used  in  describing  the  thickness  of 

spring  plates : 

Gauge. 

1 
2 
8 

4 

5 

6 

The  back  plate  is  usually  made  of  a  stouter  gauge  than  the  rest 
of  the  plates,  and  sometimes  the  short  plate  is  the  same  gauge  as 
the  back  plate.  As  there  is  movement  between  the  plates  of  a 
laminated  spring,  and  at  the  shackles,  proper  lubrication  is 
necessary  for  efficient  working,  and  also  all  tendency  to  rust  must 
be  prevented.  Before  putting  a  spring  together  it  is  usual  to  either 


Nearest  64ths  of  an  inch. 

23 

64 

ra 

64 

IK 

tj  4 

li 
64 
15 
64 
14 
6  4 
13 
64 


SPRINGS 


293 


paint  the  spring  with  a  coat  of  smudge,  or  to  brush  over  a  mixture 
of  tallow  and  graphite.  The  modern  motor  car  spring  is  provided 
with  grease  caps  to  all  the  shackle  and  other  bolts,  but  lubrication 
may  also  be  carried  out  by  using  a  special  pattern  such  as  the 
Nelson-Blakely  spring,  which  has  an  enclosed  shackle  at  each  end 
and  a  central  hollow  bolt  through  which  the  oil  travels  to  a  groove 
provided  in  each  plate.  The  enclosing  of  the  shackles  is  recom¬ 
mended  in  all  cases  where  ordinary  types  of  springs  are  used,  and 
recourse  may  be  had  to  the  use  of  a  leather  boot,  such  as  is  adopted 
with  the  steering,  and  universal  joints  of  the  shaft  drive. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 


CHASSIS  ACCESSORIES 

The  most  important  accessories  which  are  directly  concerned  with 
the  chassis  are  hooters  and  other  warning  devices,  speedometers, 
odometers,  gauges  and  other  measuring  instruments,  while  a  leading 
item  amongst  the  tool  equipment  is  the  jack  for  raising  any  wheel 
from  the  ground  for  tyre  repairing  and  manipulation. 

Hooters. — Horns  or  hooters  of  some  description  are  a  legal 
necessity  as  well  as  a  safeguard  in  preventing  accidents.  The 
usual  type  with  a  bell  mouth  and  neck  of  various  shapes  is  provided 
with  a  metal  reed,  which  vibrates  under  the  influence  of  the  rush 
of  air  occasioned  by  the  compression  of  the  rubber  bulb.  The 
mouth  of  the  horn  should  be  protected  from  dust  by  a  gauze  cover, 
and  the  fixing  should  allow  of  the  sound  being  well  projected 
forward.  Attachment  should  interfere  as  little  as  possible  with  the 
steering,  and  any  flexible  tube  which  is  used  should  be  kept  free 
from  sharp  bends.  A  good  position  for  the  horn  is  the  centre  of 
the  dashboard,  especially  when  it  can  be  wholly  or  partially  let 
into  the  scuttle  dash.  The  horn  should  be  fixed  so  that  nothing 
comes  in  front  of  it,  therefore  it  should  not  be  placed  behind  the 
front  wing,  for  instance,  but  on  top  of  it.  Horns  may  also  be 
actuated  by  a  foot  pedal  working  a  plunger  in  an  air  cylinder. 

Electric  Horns. — The  disadvantage  of  the  ordinary  hooter  is  the 
liability  of  the  rubber  bulb  to  fracture,  and  the  length  of  tubing 
necessary  with  some  positions  adopted.  It  is  not  always  a  simple 
matter  to  blow  the  horn  successfully  in  a  moment  of  danger,  and 
for  this  reason  the  neat  electric  pattern  appeals  to  many.  With 
this  type  there  is  only  a  button  to  push  and  the  response  is  instan¬ 
taneous,  and  many  have  great  penetrating  powers.  Usually  a  small 
electric  motor  is  run  vertically,  while  to  the  upper  end  of  a  spindle 


CHASSIS  ACCESSORIES  295 

is  mounted  a  toothed  wheel  which  as  it  revolves  hits  against  a  pro¬ 
jection  set  in  the  centre  of  a  steel  diaphragm,  which  is  placed  right 
across  the  inner  end  of  the  mouth  of  the  horn.  The  motor  is  con¬ 
nected  up  by  flexible  wiring  to  a  six  or  eight-volt  battery,  or  othei 
generative  system,  and  when  the  circuit  is  closed  by  pressing  the 
button  (usually  placed  on  the  steering  wheel),  the  motor  is  made  to 
revolve  at  about  3,000  revolutions  per  minute,  and  as  there  are  ten 
projections  on  the  toothed  wheel,  the  diaphragm  is  struck  some 
30,000  times  a  minute.  The  sound  may  be  varied  in  intensity  by 
adjusting  the  distance  between  the  toothed  wheel  and  the  anvil. 
Other  types  of  electric  horns  may  have  plain  diaphragms  with 
strikers  flying  out  to  hit  them,  actuated  by  centrifugal  force. 

Exhaust  Whistles. — The  exhaust  gases  are  often  utilized  to  send 
a  forcible  current  through  a  valve  so  as  to  make  a  warning  sound, 
and  of  late,  notes  of  a  very  pleasing  and  well  modulated  tone  have 
been  produced  by  this  method.  Normally  the  exhaust  passes  into 
the  silencer,  but  the  depression  by  the  driver  of  a  small  pedal  con¬ 
nected  by  a  wire  cable  closes  either  wholly  or  partially  the  way  into 
the  silencer,  and  diverts  the  rest  of  the  gas  into  the  note-producing 
apparatus.  A  leading  pattern  consists  of  a  polished  brass  cylinder 
divided  into  three  portions,  each  compartment  producing  a  separate 
note,  and  arranged  to  sound  in  harmony.  Multiple-note  horns  may 
also  be  controlled  by  a  tiny  key-board,  which  allows  the  driver  to 
use  any  or  all  of  the  notes  desired.  The  notes  are  governed  m 
another  variety  by  a  bulb  working  a  rachet,  and  a  valve  may  lie 

provided  so  that  a  tremulous  effect  is  obtained. 

The  exhaust  cut  out  is  simply  a  valve  or  shutter  which  is  closei 
in  the  exhaust  pipe  in  front  of  the  silencer  so  that  the  noise  of  the 
explosions  in  the  cylinders  is  transmitted  in  a  modified  form  to  the 
open  air.  As  a  rule,  the  valve  is  worked  by  a  pedal  working  111  a 

rack  attached  to  a  wire  cable. 

Syrens. — The  syren  consists  of  a  rotating  fan  or  paddle  wheel 
moving  in  a  chamber  provided  with  slots,  to  which  is  attached  a  bell¬ 
mouthed  horn,  similar  in  shape  to  the  bulb-operated  pattern,  on  y 
somewhat  larger.  The  fan  wheel  spindle  is  connected  by  a  flexible 
shaft,  or  pulley  and  belt,  to  a  small  friction  wheel  or  roller,  which  is 
held  in  position  against  the  flywheel  of  the  motor  by  a  small  bracket. 
The  ratio  of  the  flywheel  circumference  to  that  of  the  friction  wliee 


296 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


is,  say,  as  eighteen  to  one,  so  that  the  speed  of  the  fan  wheel  may 
easily  be  as  high  as  18,000  revolutions  per  minute.  A  small  pedal 
and  wire  cable  brings  the  roller  to  bear  against  the  flywheel,  and  as 
it  picks  up  speed  so  a  more  or  less  piercing  shriek  is  produced.  In 
some  districts  abroad,  it  is  understood  that  the  use  of  the  syren  is 
forbidden,  owing  to  its  objectionable  nature,  while  the  musical 
exhaust  horn,  as  described  above,  is  reserved  in  Germany  for  the 
Royal  pleasure.  The  syren  may  also  be  rotated  by  electrical 
means. 

Foot  Bells. — A  gong  is  sometimes  fitted  under  the  floor  of  com¬ 
mercial  and  electric  vehicles,  which  is  operated  by  a  pedal  in 
connection  with  one  or  a  pair  of  clappers. 

Speedometers. — The  speedometer  is  a  useful  accessory  as  well  as 
adding  considerably  to  the  pleasure  of  driving,  since  the  number  of 
miles  run  are  usually  recorded  as  well  as  the  rate  one  is  travelling. 
Much  ingenuity  is  displayed  in  the  construction  of  the  delicate 
mechanism  which  moves  the  index  finger  on  the  dial,  and  broadly 
the  principles  of  working  adopted  may  be  divided  into  magnetic 
and  centrifugal  action.  With  the  magnetic  system  a  horse  shoe 
or  other  shaped  permanent  magnet  is  mounted  vertically  on  a 
spindle  connected  by  gearing  to  the  flexible  shaft,  which  may  be 
driven  from  a  toothed  ring  attached  to  the  inside  of  the  off-side 
front  road  wheel  hub  plate,  against  which  a  spur  wheel  is  kept 
in  mesh. 

The  drive  is  sometimes  arranged  by  having  a  small  belt  drive 
taken  off  the  cardan  shaft  to  a  small  wheel  specially  mounted  on  a 
bracket  inside  the  frame  side  member.  The  magnet  as  it  revolves 
exerts  a  pull  on  a  metal  disc,  the  disc  being  directly  attached  to  the 
index  finger.  Acting  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  pull  on  the 
disc  is  a  hair  spring  fastened  at  one  end  to  a  stationary  keeper, 
and  the  balance  of  these  forces  results  in  the  pointer  indicating  on 
a  graduated  dial  the  speed  in  miles  per  hour.  It  follows  therefore 
that  there  is  no  positive  connection  between  the  pointer  and  the 
driving  mechanism,  but  merely  the  revolution  of  the  metal  disc  by 
means  of  magnetic  force  acting  against  a  fine  coiled  spring.  The 
case  and  other  parts  of  the  speedometer  are  of  brass,  or  other  non¬ 
magnetic  material,  so  that  the  influences  set  up  by  the  magnets  are 
confined  to  the  disc. 


CHASSIS  ACCESSORIES 


297 


In  the  Cowey  speed  indicator,  a  balance  wheel  is  set  in  motion 
by  the  front  wheel  drive  against  a  small  spring,  which  is  connected 
to  the  balance  wheel  by  a  small  chain,  in  such  a  manner  that  it 
tends  to  draw  continuously  the  balance  wheel  towards  the  zero 
position,  while  the  drive  gives  a  series  of  intermittent  impulses  to 
the  wheel  which  acts  upon  it  in  the  opposite  direction,  so  that  the 
greater  the  speed  of  the  balance  wheel,  the  more  it  succeeds  in  over¬ 
coming  the  retarding  action  of  the  spring.  The  Smith  speedometer 
has  a  small  centrally  jointed  governor  to  which  is  fastened  three 
weights  turning  horizontally  on  a  spindle.  As  these  weights  fly  out, 
so  they  contract  the  central  axes  of  the  governor,  and  in  so 
doing  act  on  a  series  of  three  springs  of  different  strengths. 
The  most  delicate  spring  is  acted  on  first,  thus  ensuring  that  the 
speedometer  shall  respond  at  low  speeds,  while  the  inner  end  of 
the  governor  pulls  on  a  small  worm  drive,  which  is  connected  to 
the  index  figure  mechanism. 

Some  centrifugal  speedometers  are  fitted  with  steel  balls,  which, 
as  the  speed  increases,  move  upwards  in  a  special  track  and  raise 
a  spring  which  controls  the  movement  of  a  rack  and  pinion.  Balls 
as  they  are  whirled  may  also  turn  a  cup  on  the  edge  of  which  is  a 
finger  which  comes  in  contact  with  a  lever  connected  to  the  pointer 
moving  mechanism.  A  very  simple  type  is  the  instrument  which 
utilizes  the  principle  of  the  position  taken  up  by  a  liquid  when  it  is 
contained  in  a  vessel  revolving  on  its  vertical  axis.  Under  these 
conditions,  the  liquid  falls  in  the  centre  and  rises  at  the  side. 

Speedometers  are  slightly  affected  by  the  weather,  but  the  error 
is  of  little  moment  unless  the  car  is  travelling  above  the  legal  limit. 
The  majority  of  instruments  read  accurately  at  about  80°  F.,  so 
that  on  most  days  the  pointer  will  be  a  little  fast,  perhaps  a  quarter 
to  a  half  mile  at  the  most.  At  sixty  miles  per  hour,  on  a  very  cold 
day,  the  record  may  be  some  six  miles  fast,  while  it  is  necessary 
for  the  temperature  to  be  well  above  100°  F.,  and  the  car  travelling 
over  forty  miles  per  hour,  for  there  to  be  an  appreciable  error. 

The  odometer  or  distance  recorder  usually  allows  of  the  mileage 
being  totalled  throughout  the  year  as  well  as  on  each  trip,  it  being 
possible  to  reset  this  to  zero  after  the  completion  of  the  journey. 
The  annual  mileage  maximum  may  run  up  to  100,000.  If  the 
zero  point  is  required  again  before  reaching  this  total  it  is  advisable 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


298 

to  send  the  instrument  to  the  makers.  Any  flexible  shaft  used, 
as  with  horns,  should  be  as  free  from  sharp  bends  as  possible. 

A  tachometer  is  an  instrument  for  counting  the  revolutions  per 
minute  of  the  engine  crank  shaft. 

Speedometers  are  also  provided  with  a  maximum  speed  hand, 
which  stays  at  the  position  indicating  the  greatest  number  of  miles 
per  hour  attained  since  the  hand  was  last  released  to  zero.  The 
driving  of  measuring  instruments  from  the  road  wheels  necessitates 
that  the  device  should  tally  exactly  with  the  front  wheel  circum¬ 
ference.  This  should  be  obtained  by  chalking  a  mark  on  the  tyre, 
and  at  its  contact  with  the  ground,  and  running  the  wheel  along  a 
smooth  place  until  the  tyre  mark  is  again  at  the  lowest  position. 
It  has  been  found  that  owing  to  skidding  the  driving  wheels  are 
not  a  proper  place  to  fit  up  the  drive,  so  that  any  device  connected 
to  the  transmission  system  is  liable  to  suffer  from  the  same  cause. 
This  fact  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  with  the  use  of  taximeters, 
and  now  it  is  enforced  that  they  shall  be  connected  up  to  the 
steering  wheels. 

Jacks. — One  of  the  weighty  tools  which  have  to  be  carried  on 
the  car  is  the  jack.  This  should  have  a  broad  base,  be  quickly 
adjustable,  strong,  and  with  all  the  working  parts  hardened  to  stand 
wear.  The  common  type  consists  of  a  hollow  pedestal  in  which  is 
a  short  shaft  connected  at  its  top  with  bevel  gearing,  so  that  when 
the  detachable  handle  is  inserted  and  turned,  the  revolving  shaft 
provided  with  a  worm  rises  in  the  pedestal.  More  powerful  types 
suitable  for  garage  work  have  a  longer  and  fixed  handle  which 
may  work  in  conjunction  with  a  rachet.  Others  work  by  foot 
pressure,  while  rim  jacks  are  quickly  operated  and  useful  when 
attaching  a  Stepney  wheel.  A  jack  may  also  be  specially  made 
to  suit  a  certain  car  having  a  pair  of  long  handles  attached  to  an 
axle  running  on  a  pair  of  castors.  A  pair  of  short  arms  are  provided 
with  suitable  depressions  which  grasp  the  car  axle  when  placed 
underneath,  and  on  depressing  the  long  handles  an  easy  leverage 
is  obtained,  and  the  car  is  thereby  quickly  lifted  with  a  minimum 
of  energy. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 


THE  PRESERVATION  OF  THE  CAR 

Preservation  means  Economy  and  Absence  of  Breakdown . — The 
proper  care  of  a  car  means  economy  in  upkeep,  and  even  if  expense 
is  of  little  consideration,  careless  operation  may  easily  lead  to 
breakdowns  on  the  road,  which  will  be  the  source  of  much  trouble 
and  inconvenience,  so  that  a  right  appreciation  of  how  a  car  should 
be  cared  for  is  essential  to  the  enjoyment  of  motoring. 

The  man  of  a  systematic  temperament  takes  a  natural  delight 
in  going  through  a  certain  routine  every  time  he  takes  his  car  out 
for  a  journey,  but  there  are  others,  even  paid  chauffeurs,  who  need 
forcible  reminders  before  they  realize  that  a  road  machine  needs 
periodical  attention,  in  order  to  give  satisfaction. 

Systematic  and  Periodical  Attention . — The  successful  manage¬ 
ment  of  the  car  depends  on  the  realization  as  to  the  intervals  which 
should  elapse  between  each  filling  of  the  tanks,  the  inspection 
of  various  parts  of  the  car,  and  so  on. 

If  a  mileage  recorder  is  carried,  and  the  motorist  knows  the 
miles  per  gallon  his  car  averages,  together  with  the  capacity  of  the 
petrol  tank,  a  rough  calculation  will  soon  show  him  if  he  can  get 
home  without  replenishment.  A  careful  motorist  will  prefer  a 
gauge  of  some  sort  fitted,  and  will  carry  a  spare  tin,  to  be  used 
only  in  emergencies. 

The  Preliminaries  of  every  Journey. — It  should  be  made  a  rule 
always  to  fill  the  tank  on  setting  out,  no  matter  what  amount  of 
fuel  may  be  remaining.  In  like  manner  the  start  from  home 
should  be  with  tyres  pumped  to  their  right  pressure,  a  full  radiator, 
and  the  oil  reservoir,  whatever  its  type,  should  be  filled  up  to  the 
correct  level,  and  if  a  particular  brand  is  desirable  for  a  particular 
engine,  and  it  is  unlikely  that  a  tin  can  be  purchased  cn  route  if  the 


300 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


run  is  to  be  a  long  one,  then  a  spare  supply  will  give  confidence, 
even  if  not  actually  required. 

Lubrication  and  Greasing  most  Important. — The  man  of  natural 
mechanical  inclinations  goes  round  with  his  oil  can  as  a  matter  of 
habit,  but  this  is  not  always  the  case  with  the  man  who  will  pass 
through  a  squeaking  gate  at  home,  and  struggle  with  refractory 
bolts,  without  itching  at  once  for  a  bit  of  grease.  The  lubrication 
systems  on  various  cars  differ  in  detail,  and  are  summed  up  else¬ 
where  ;  also  it  is  unnecessary  to  buy  a  car  whose  maker  does  not 
supply  ample  information,  both  descriptive  and  illustrative,  as  to 
every  point  in  the  car’s  anatomy  which  requires  grease  and  oil. 
The  amount  of  lubrication  to  be  given  to  any  part  depends  on  the 
amount  of  work  performed  per  car  mile,  and  the  nature  of  the 
bearing.  Lubrication  must  be  well  provided  for  always  in  the  main 
bearings  of  the  engine,  and  such  parts  as  all  steering  connections, 
and.  the  clutch,  while  attention  should  be  given  every  hundred  miles 
to  the  spring  greasers,  for  the  movement  here  is  incessant,  though 
the  radius  of  action  is  small.  Those  who  are  cyclists  will  require  no 
reminding  that  the  tyres  should  be  inspected  after  each  day’s  run, 
and  part  of  the  preparation  for  a  journey  consists  in  testing  the 
tightness  of  the  various  bolts  and  nuts. 

Lubrication  of  all  bearings  is  not  called  for  every  day,  but  the 
greater  the  day’s  mileage  so  a  shorter  period  will  elapse  before 
this  becomes  necessary.  If  a  daily  average  of  thirty-five  miles  is 
covered  for  a  week,  then  all  minor  bearings  should  receive  attention 
at  the  week  end,  or,  say,  once  in  every  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles, 
while  those  of  the  engine,  the  steering,  and  springs,  after  every 
day’s  run.  Considering  the  many  places  where  oiling  has  to  be 
done  and  grease  caps  given  a  turn,  apart  from  following  out  the 
chart  at  hand,  a  certain  order  should  be  striven  after,  so  that  no 
bearing  is  omitted.  This  may  be  done  by  working  gradually  round 
the  engine  from  one  side  to  the  other,  and  so  on  round  the  chassis, 
doing  those  parts  under  the  floor  boards,  say,  after  all  has  been 
done  forward  of  the  dashboard.  Such  parts  as  ignition  and  throttle 
levers  and  the  magneto  bearings,  bonnet  catches,  door  and  wind 
screen’s  hinges,  will  only  need  a  drop  or  two  of  oil. 

Draining  Out  and  Flushing. — Although  a  daily  replenishment  of 
oil  has  been  given  to  the  engine,  the  whole  should  be  drained  out 


THE  PRESERVATION  OF  THE  CAR 


301 


after  every  two  thousand  miles,  and  the  whole  flushed  out  with 
a  half-gallon  of  paraffln,  .any  gauze  belonging  to  the  oil  filters 
thoroughly  cleaned,  the  engine  run  for  a  few  moments,  drained  out, 
and  then  replenished  with  oil.  In  most  cars  the  gear  box  is  filled 
with  grease ;  this  will  now  be  entirely  removed,  the  gear  box  washed 
out  with  paraffin  and  replenished  with  lubricant.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  dissolve  some  of  the  old  grease  in  a  glass  with  petrol,  and  note  if 
any  metallic  sediment  is  formed ;  if  so,  the  wear  of  the  gears  should 
be  noted,  and  great  care  taken  to  remove  all  dirt  and  other  matter 
liable  to  set  up  abrasion. 

Should  the  gear  box  be  oil  fed,  then  this  will  receive  similar 
daily  and  periodical  attention  as  the  engine.  Washing  out  and 
replenishment  will  also  proceed  at  the  universal  joints,  differential 
case,  back  axle,  and  all  grease  caps. 

A  new  car  requires  more  generous  lubrication  than  one  which 
has  been  running  a  month  or  two,  but  lubrication  should  be  carried 
out  with  care  and  cleanliness,  so  that  dirt  is  not  attracted  unduly  to 
oily  surfaces,  while  bearings  which  are  grease-lubricated  require,  of 
course,  less  attention  than  those  which  are  oil  fed. 

Daily  lubrication  may  include  attention  to  the  rocker  arm  bear¬ 
ings  of  overhead  valves,  or  some  important  bearing  on  the  propeller 
shaft;  in  fact,  each  car  must  be  a  law  unto  itself,  and  the  wise 
motorist  will  know  his  oiling  chart  thoroughly. 

Attention  given  to  Radiator  and  Spring  Plates. — When  draining 
out  the  engine  the  water  should  also  be  emptied  from  the  radiator, 
and  the  water  jackets  inspected  for  fur,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases 
a  good  flushing  out  with  soda  water  will  be  advisable.  The  car 
may  also  be  jacked  up,  thereby  relieving  most  of  the  pressure 
between  the  spring  plates,  and  some  grease  inserted.  Some  makers 
advise  emptying  the  petrol  tank,  so  that  any  water  present  in  the 
bottom  may  be  removed,  and  also  washing  out  the  carburettor 
thoroughly. 

Leaks  should  be  looked  for  daily  in  all  parts  of  the  petrol,  oil, 
and  water  systems,  and  a  precaution  not  always  indulged  in  is 
to  have  a  preliminary  canter  with  the  car,  merely  for  the  purpose 
of  testing  both  hand  and  foot  brakes,  which  will,  at  the  same  time, 
test  the  proper  working  of  the  steering  gear. 

Periodical  adjustment  is  necessary  to  the  fan  belt  and  brake 


302 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


rods,  say,  once  a  month,  while  more  important  bearings  will  pro¬ 
bably  be  done  under  professional  guidance  at  the  yearly  overhaul. 

Ignition  Precautions . — Under  ordinary  mileage  conditions,  accu¬ 
mulators  will  be  recharged  once  a  month ;  dissatisfaction  with  this 
part  of  the  equipment  is  seldom  through  too  much  attention  in  this 
direction.  The  wiring  should  be  constantly  inspected,  whatever  the 
system  used,  and  particular  attention  paid  to  the  fastenings  at 
the  terminals,  to  see  that  they  are  in  good  order.  Platinum  points 
should  not  be  filed  periodically,  but  only  if  they  are  found  to  require 
it.  All  parts  of  the  ignition,  except  moving  parts,  should  be  dry 
and  clean,  and  the  mechanism  of  the  modern  magneto  can  usually 
be  left  severely  alone,  except  for  an  occasional  drip  of  oil,  and 
cleaning  of  the  points  of  the  contact  breaker.  The  porcelains  of 
the  sparking  plugs  should  be  free  from  cracks;  if  any  develop, 
a  new  one  must  be  screwed  in,  while  some  motorists  will  take  them 
out  occasionally  to  see  that  the  points  are  clean ;  but  this  inspection 
usually  occurs  when  the  engine  has  been  misfiring. 

Thorough  insulation  of  the  wiring  is  highly  important  in  all 
parts  of  the  high-tension  circuit  between  the  magneto  and  plugs. 

Valve  Grinding  and  Care  of  the  Clutch. — Valve  grinding,  especially 
the  exhaust  ones,  is  recommended  once  a  month,  the  operation  being 
performed  with  a  paste  of  emery  and  paraffin,  or  special  tools  may 
be  utilized,  while  proper  response  of  the  valves  to  their  tappets  is 
ensured  by  their  clearance  being  always  about  the  thickness  of  a 
visiting  card.  Castor  oil,  and  not  resin,  should  be  used  on  a 
slipping  leather  clutch,  and  sometimes  a  slight  adjustment  of  the 
spring  may  be  necessary,  while  a  fierce  one  may  be  assisted  with  a 
little  paraffin.  Plate  clutches  require  a  special  lubricant.  Re¬ 
leathering  should  only  occasionally  be  required,  say,  once  in  20,000 
miles.  Further  details  of  the  car’s  management  will  be  furnished 
by  the  motor  manufacturer,  either  in  the  catalogue  or  a  special 
instruction  book,  those  supplied  by  the  Daimler,  Argyll,  Wolseley, 
and  Napier  firms  being  excellent  examples,  while  American  manu¬ 
facturers  are  also  fully  alive  to  the  advantage  gained  by  the 
publication  of  these  handbooks. 

The  Care  of  the  Bodywork. — As  regards  the  bodywork,  this  does 
not  always  receive  the  attention  it  deserves.  The  man  who  owns  a 
car  of  small  or  medium  power,  and  looks  after  the  well-being  of  the 


THE  PRESERVATION  OF  THE  CAR 


303 


complete  vehicle  himself,  is  likely  to  begrudge  the  attention  neces¬ 
sary  to  keep  the  varnished  panelling  bright,  and  the  interior  up¬ 
holstery  clean,  while  much  has  been  said  on  the  subject  of  the  labour 
entailed  in  keeping  the  metal  parts,  such  as  lamps,  headings,  handles, 
and  step  edging,  in  a  cleanly  condition. 

Some  motorists  have  endeavoured  to  compromise  matters  by 
having  a  body  finished  with  a  flat  surface,  that  is,  unvarnished,  while 
much  of  the  usual  plating  work  is  substituted  by  having  them 
japanned  or  finished  with  a  gun-metal  effect. 

A  car  gets  dirtier  quicker  than  a  carriage,  because  of  the  greater 
mileage  and  speed.  There  has  yet  to  be  discovered  a  varnish  of 
greater  durability  to  withstand  the  rougher  usage. 

Trimmings  should  be  dispensed  with  where  possible  in  touring 
cars,  and  cocoanut-fibre  mats  on  the  floor  are  preferable  to  wool 
rugs  and  carpets.  The  practice  is  daily  growing  in  favour  of  using 
small  fibre  mats,  either  strapped  on  or  let  into  the  step. 

The  Motor  House. — The  motor  house  must  be  dry  and  free  from 
ammonia  fumes  such  as  will  be  always  present  in  a  stable  ;  therefore, 
if  horses  are  kept,  there  should  be  no  direct  communication.  As 
ammonia  is  used  sometimes  for  removing  paint  and  varnish  at  the 
motor  body  builder’s,  it  will  be  needless  to  say  more  on  this  subject. 
The  motor  house  should  be  kept  clean  and  free  from  dust,  and  no 
direct  rays  of  sunlight  should  be  allowed  to  play  on  the  panels  for 
any  length  of  time,  a  remark  which  also  applies  when  the  car  is  on 
the  road.  The  car  should  stand  with  a  fair  gangway  all  round,  not 
only  for  convenience  of  inspection,  but  because  the  proximity  of 
brick  walls  generally  means  a  continual,  although  slight,  emanation 
of  dampness.  The  motor  house  should  be  swept  once  a  week,  after 
the  car  has  been  drawn  out,  and  much  labour  will  be  saved  if  the 
whole  vehicle  is  enveloped  in  a  light  cover  made  to  approximately 
fit  the  outlines  of  the  car,  and  just  clearing  the  ground.  Tools, 
accessories,  and  spare  parts  should  be  installed  in  cupboards  rather 
than  on  shelves.  A  concrete  or  hard  wood  floor  is  recommended, 
and  all  plastering  should  be  in  good  repair.  Top  skylights  are 
liable  to  be  the  source  of  much  dust  and  dirt,  as  well  as  leakage. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  in  the  chapter  on  painting  as 
to  the  use  of  a  newly  varnished  car.  The  first  home-coming  from 
the  factory  should  be  followed  by  a  wash  down  in  clean  cold  water, 


3°4 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


and  frequent  washings  are  more  necessary  with  a  new  than  an  older 
car,  as  each  application  of  water  hardens  the  varnish. 

Washing  a  Varnished  Panel. — The  body  should  always  be  washed 
after  the  day’s  run,  however  short  and  whatever  the  weather.  Mud 
which  has  dried  on  should  be  gently  soaked  off  with  a  liberal  appli¬ 
cation  of  water  under  gentle  pressure  assisted  with  a  sponge  free 
from  grit.  Washing  should  be  done  in  a  shady  place,  on  hard 
ground,  and,  if  the  weather  is  frosty,  the  slightly  warmed  motor 
house  will  be  desirable.  Wheels  are  cleaned  by  raising  them  with 
the  jack  or  setter,  and  the  use  of  the  spoke  brush  is  not  recommended 
if  the  varnish  is  to  be  kept  as  bright  as  possible,  as  it  tempts  the 
operator  to  use  more  friction  than  is  desirable.  Wiping  off  is  done 
with  soft  chamois  leathers. 

In  washing  an  open  car,  all  cushions,  carpets,  and  so  on,  will  be 
removed,  while  care  must  be  taken  not  to  wet  the  exposed  portions 
of  the  trimming.  In  a  closed  body  all  lights  will  be  raised.  The 
sponge  should  be  squeezed,  not  rubbed  over  the  panels.  This  opera¬ 
tion  should  be  confined  to  the  use  of  the  leather  when  all  mud,  and 
therefore  abrasive  mediums,  have  been  removed.  A  good  system  is 
to  wash  the  roof  first,  then  the  leather  work  (if  any),  afterwards 
proceeding  with  the  body  and  wings,  and  lastly  the  chassis  and 
wheels,  the  idea  being  that  no  dirty  water  can  run  on  to  a  freshly 
cleaned  surface  from  above. 

Cleaning  the  Metal  Parts. — A  gentleman’s  brougham  has  usually 
but  few  bright  parts,  and,  in  many  cases,  the  plating  is  confined  to 
the  door  handles,  axle  caps,  and  beading  on  the  border  of  the 
driving  seat ;  but  in  a  car  the  list  will  often  include  five  lamps,  four 
door  handles,  two  top  levers,  bonnet  details,  a  pair  of  ascending 
handles,  dash  and  elbow  beading,  wind-screen  stanchions  and  fittings, 
luggage  rail  scrolls,  step  edging,  numerous  dashboard  fittings,  a 
hooter,  and  axle  caps.  All  this  brilliancy  is  merely  the  dictates  of 
fashion,  and  can  easily  be  modified  if  the  motorist  cares  to  select 
full  or  partly  japanned  lamps,  and  have  various  body  details  painted 
or  stove  enamelled. 

There  are  many  polishing  pastes  on  the  market,  but  the  bril¬ 
liancy  of  the  several  parts  may  be  maintained  if  only  the  chauffeur 
will  give  them  his  daily  attention  with  a  woollen  rag  and  a  little 
elbow  grease.  Once  a  cleaning  compound  is  used,  it  must  be  kept 


THE  PRESERVATION  OF  THE  CAR 


3°5 


up.  If  a  powder  or  paste  is  used,  it  must  be  finely  ground  and  free 
from  acid.  Whitening  is  recommended  for  nickel  and  silver  mount¬ 
ings,  while  many  praise  highly  the  use  of  paraffin  for  the  glass,  but 
this  should  never  be  used  in  the  body  washing  water,  although  it 
may  be  used  on  greasy  parts  of  the  chassis  and  wheels. 

The  Care  of  Cloth  and  Leather  Trimmings. — New  leather  should 
simply  be  washed.  Neatsfoot  oil  may  be  used  with  advantage 
when  the  leather  begins  to  harden,  which  should  be  allowed 
time  to  soak  in  and  then  wiped  off,  the  operation  being  repeated 
weekly. 

Cape  cart  hoods  and  the  leather  heads  of  landaulettes  should  be 
kept  fully  extended  when  the  car  is  standing  in  the  motor  house. 
Grease  stains  on  the  paintwork  should  first  be  attacked  with  a  good 
quality  soap  and  cold  water,  while  any  obstinate  stains  may  be 
treated  with  a  gentle  application  of  boiled  linseed  oil  and  wadding, 
and  afterwards  wiped  off. 

A  body  is  trimmed  so  that,  if  it  is  a  cloth  lining,  the  nap  brushes 
from  top  to  bottom  and  from  back  to  front.  This  should  be  remem¬ 
bered  when  brushing  out  the  lining  after  the  cushions  have  been 
removed. 

Moth-eaten  trimmings  are  prevented  by  giving  the  car 
periodical  ventilation  and  exposure  to  light,  if  it  is  to  be  shut  up 
for  an  extended  period,  also  thorough  brushing,  so  as  to  disperse  all 
eggs,  say,  once  a  month.  An  extra  precaution  is  to  keep  a  quantity 
of  camphor  dissolved  in  turpentine  in  the  interior. 

Morocco  and  other  leather  linings  may  be  cleaned  with  a  chamois 
leather  or  soft  rag.  Morocco  is  water  dyed,  so  that  it  must  not  be 
sponged. 

Now  and  then  a  coloured  varnish  paint  may  be  applied  to  the 
wheel  rims,  and,  if  there  are  any  step  treads,  a  little  black  paint 
may  be  indulged  in  occasionally.  Rubber  matting  should  never  be 
painted,  but  brushed  over  with  chalk.  If  the  shabby  appearance  is 
disliked,  recourse  may  be  had  to  an  aluminium  matting. 

The  preservation  of  the  underparts  of  the  mechanism  will  rely  a 
great  deal  on  the  design  of  the  undershield.  This,  in  conjunction 
with  effective  side  guards  to  the  wings  and  step,  will  save  a  lot  of 
labour.  When  inspection  is  necessary,  the  undershield  should  be 
easily  detachable,  each  portion  being  capable  of  detachment  without 


x 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


306 

interfering  with  the  others.  When  the  engine  and  gear  box  is 
made  as  a  unit,  this  simplifies  matters  to  a  great  extent. 

There  are  various  specially  made  washing  appliances  on  the 
market,  which  consist  of  hose  attached  to  self-saturating  sponges 
and  brushes  with  means  whereby  the  supply  can  be  easily  con¬ 
trolled. 

Removing  Spots.— Tar  spots  are  removed  by  a  gentle  application 
of  naphtha  and  cotton  wool,  wiped  off  as  soon  as  the  spots  soften — a 
slight  damage  to  the  varnished  surface  is  almost  inevitable. 

Various  polishing  creams  should  be  tried  with  caution,  and  on 
the  whole  should  be  avoided. 

Rain  spots,  which  are  very  liable  to  form  on  the  heated  portions 
of  a  bonnet,  may  be  almost  obliterated  with  boiled  linseed  oil  and  a 
soft  rag. 

Unvarnished  paintwork  may  be  cleaned  with  paraffin.  Close 
plating  should  be  indulged  in,  if  it  can  be  afforded,  as  the  extra 
expense  is  justified  by  the  longer  wear  over  electro  plating. 

The  vacuum  cleaner  is  useful  for  removing  the  greater  part  of 
dust  from  linings,  especially  in  awkward  corners  and  crevices. 

A  moderate  yet  thorough  application  of  benzene  will  clean  a 
dirty  lining,  applied  with  a  stiff  brush,  but  it  should  be  done  in  the 
daytime  away  from  all  lights,  and  smoking  should  not  be  indulged  in. 

General  Precautions . — The  position  of  the  exhaust  outlet  often 
accounts  for  a  blistered  back  panel.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  fit  a  deflect¬ 
ing  plate  so  that  the  hot  gases  are  dispersed  as  widely  as  possible 
just  behind  the  car. 

Aluminium  surfaces  should  be  cleaned  with  a  turpentine  rag. 

Lamps  may  be  kept  in  fitted  bags  of  soft  material  during  the 
daytime,  and  should  always  be  wrapped  up  when  not  in  use,  in  the 
motor-house  lockers. 

Detachable  wheels,  rims,  and  flanges  should  be  taken  off  once  a 
fortnight  and  lubricated,  as  well  as  those  carried  on  the  car. 

Loose  floor  boards  should  always  be  rectified  by  the  insertion  of 
new  ones,  or  packing  at  the  edges,  as  much  dust  will  enter  the  body 
in  this  way. 

Cape  cart  hoods  must  not  be  cleaned  with  petrol,  or  other 
solvent  of  the  inner  rubber  layer  or  outer  dressing.  Soap  and 
water  is  the  best  medium. 


THE  PRESERVATION  OF  THE  CAR 


3°7 

Polished  woodwork  should  be  dusted  and  rubbed  over  with  a 
linseed  oil  rag,  and  afterwards  wiped  off. 

The  back  of  driving  seats  in  open  cars  should  have  a  protecting 
shield,  especially  at  the  bottom  where  it  may  be  kicked.  This 
shield  may  be  of  greater  utility  if  it  forms  a  pocket  for  storing  small 
articles. 

The  doors  of  a  car  should  always  fit  tightly  when  closed ;  they 
should  never  be  slammed  or  leant  upon.  A  slight  rattle  in  door  or 
glass  frames  should  be  immediately  rectified  by  any  adjustable 
device  present  or  by  calling  at  the  coachbuilder’s. 

The  hood  of  a  landaulette  should  be  systematically  lowered  by 
first  dropping  the  curtains  from  horizontal  to  vertical,  unfastening 
the  head  locks  or  catches,  and  striking  the  joints.  The  back  light 
should  lay  on  the  back  squab  and  not  on  the  panel,  and  it  may  be 
necessary  to  tuck  in  the  leather  as  the  hood  is  lowered,  especially 
with  a  new  one. 

The  care  of  tyres  has  already  been  dealt  with  in  the  chapter 
devoted  to  them. 

Advice  regarding  a  car  laid  by  for  the  winter  is  seldom  now 
required,  as  motoring  is  now  practicable  at  all  weathers.  The 
engine  and  lubrication  generally,  in  this  instance,  requires  extra 
attention  such  as  would  be  given  after  a  mileage  of  2,000 ;  all  petrol 
and  water  should  be  emptied  out.  The  accumulators  should  be 
re-charged,  the  electrolyte  emptied  out  and  replaced  with  clean 
water.  This  advice  may  vary  slightly  according  to  the  type  of 
accumulators  used. 

Tyres  are  best  removed,  wrapped  up  and  stowed  away  in  a  dry 
dark  place,  while  the  axles  will  be  supported  on  strong  low  trestles. 
The  body  should  be  periodically  ventilated  and  brushed  out. 

The  bodywork  of  a  car  should  be  touched  up  and  varnished 
at  least  annually. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 


MOTORING  AND  ITS  COST 

The  Price  of  Chassis. — Some  attention  has  already  been  given,  in 
Chapter  XVIII.,  to  the  choice  of  a  chassis.  Going  into  the  matter 
more  closely,  it  will  be  found  that  the  British  market  is  well  supplied 
with  cars  to  suit  a  wide  range  of  outlay.  One-cylinder  chassis, 
varying  from  6  to  9  horse-power,  may  be  had  from  £115  to  £200 ; 
two-cylinder  chassis,  with  a  horse-power  varying  from  10  to  20,  are 
available  at  from  £160  to  £450;  four-cylinder  ones,  with  horse¬ 
power  from  10  to  120,  which  are  listed  as  low  as  £155,  run  up  to 
£1275  ;  while  in  the  six-cylinder  class  one  finds  horse-power  rising 
from  23  up  to  90,  and  the  prices  asked  run  from  £350  to  £1700. 

Roughly  speaking,  price  depends  first  on  horse-power,  and  the 
extra  smoothness  of  running  gained  by  having  a  multiplicity  of 
cylinders  has  to  be  paid  for,  because  of  the  extra  number  of  parts 
entailed.  As  a  general  rule,  two  chassis  of  the  same  horse-power, 
having  the  same  number  of  cylinders,  but  of  different  price,  will 
mean  that  the  lower-priced  one  has  less  speeds  provided  for  in  the  gear 
box,  accumulator  ignition  instead  of  a  magneto  ignition,  or  a  double 
system,  the  wheel-base  is  shorter,  the  track  is  narrower,  small  tyres 
are  used,  and  in  a  few  cases  a  chain-drive  will  be  present,  and  a 
friction  transmission  instead  of  the  usual  gear  box.  Where  the 
difference  is  not  readily  apparent,  a  greater  price  for  the  same 
horse-power  will  then  mean  that  the  chassis  is  provided  with  several 
refinements  not  mounted  on  the  cheaper  one,  the  material  is  better, 
likewise  the  finish,  and  it  may  be  that  the  specification  includes 
more  accessories,  and  a  more  generous  kit  of  tools  and  spares  than 
that  present  in  the  other  chassis. 

Coming  to  averages,  one  must  be  prepared  to  spend  £150  on  a 
one-cylinder  chassis  (although  in  most  British  instances  this  cannot 
be  reckoned  as  a  separate  outlay,  as  the  complete  car  with  bod}7  has 


MOTORING  AND  ITS  COST 


309 


to  be  bought),  <£250  on  a  two-cylinder  chassis,  £300  on  a  four-cylinder 
one,  if  the  horse-power  required  is  not  greater  than  15,  while  for  a 
powerful  car  at  least  double  that  amount  must  be  expended  before 
the  body  is  thought  of.  A  six-cylinder  chassis  of  say  30  horse¬ 
power  will  cost  £600. 

The  Price  of  the  Body. — The  next  big  item  is  the  cost  of  the 
body.  This  will  vary  quite  as  much  as  the  chassis,  and,  as  a  rule, 
one  is  tempted  to  spend  money  on  the  body  in  proportion  to  the 
price  of  the  chassis. 

A  two-seated  body  for  a  single-cylinder  chassis,  with  cape  hood 
and  glass  screen,  will  cost  about  £55  to  £75.  A  similar  body  for  a 
two-cylinder  chassis,  somewhat  longer,  and  provided  with  a  folding 
seat  at  the  rear,  will  run  from  £75  to  £115,  and  a  body  of  this  type 
fitted  to  a  four-cylinder  chassis  and  designed  by  a  leading  firm, 
may  cost  even  as  much  as  £175. 

Side-entrance  phaetons,  of  various  kinds,  vary  greatly  in  price 
because  there  are  so  many  degrees  of  finish.  A  small  four-seated 
car  may  be  had  as  low  as  £65,  and  one  may  continually  meet  with 
prices  even  lower  than  this,  but  the  quality  of  such  work  is  not 
dependable,  or  else  the  builder  has  little  idea  of  the  cost.  At  £65 
it  is  improbable  that  a  cape  cart  hood  and  glass  screen  will  be 
included,  so  that  in  order  to  get  good  workmanship  £100  should  be 
allowed  for  a  small  phaeton  and  up  to  £160  for  the  larger  variety 
holding  seven  persons. 

Satisfactory  small  limousines  and  landaulettes,  finished  neatly, 
may  be  had  for  £160,  but  it  is  easy  to  spend  another  £100  on  such 
a  type  of  body  by  having  it  larger  and  more  luxurious  in  every 
way. 

Cabriolets  cost  somewhat  more  than  landaulettes,  while  large 
enclosed  cars  run  from  £300  to  £350. 

Extras. — In  purchasing  a  body  or  a  chassis  one  should  be  on 
the  look-out  for  extras,  but  this  matter  is  seldom  of  much  con¬ 
sequence  if  one  is  paying  a  good  price.  When  ordering  a  body 
one  should  obtain  a  full  specification  of  all  details  included,  so  that 
there  is  no  misunderstanding  as  to  whether  side  curtains  to  the 
cape  cart  hood  are  included  in  the  price  stated,  or  a  luggage  rack 
at  the  rear,  or  certain  cantines,  folding  tables,  and  electric  light  in 
a  limousine,  and  so  on. 


310 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


Lamps  are  nearly  always  a  separate  item,  but  sometimes  the 
dash  lamps  are  given  with  the  chassis.  The  body  price  should  in¬ 
clude  the  provision  and  fixing  of  all  lamp  irons  required.  A  small 
car  will  have  some  d£10  worth  of  lamps,  a  set  of  five  lamps  on  the 
average  car  running  into  ,£25,  while  the  spare  wheel  and  fittings 
will  cost,  say,  with  tyre,  £15,  a  speedometer,  £5,  which  with 
other  details  usually  means  some  £25  worth  of  additional  expendi¬ 
ture  on  what  may  be  reasonably  defined  as  the  complete  car,  and 
double  that  amount  on  a  larger  one. 

The  Complete  Capital  Outlay. — To  sum  up,  one  should  be  willing 
to  spend  at  least  £250,  and  this  sum  may  be  looked  upon  as  a 
minimum  for  a  small  car,  while  the  majority  of  motorists  spend 
double  this  amount  on  the  complete  car,  before  the  question  of 
maintenance  is  reckoned.  A  powerful  car,  with  luxurious  appoint¬ 
ments,  may  easily  run  into  four  figures. 

It  is  as  well  to  form  a  definite  idea  as  to  what  constitutes  capital 
outlay,  because  accurate  and  just  accounts  of  the  cost  of  running 
a  car  can  only  be  obtained  by  appreciating  this  properly.  De¬ 
preciation  should  be  deduced  from  capital  expenditure,  while  at  the 
same  time  capital  expenditure  should  not  be  confused  with  the 
maintenance  account. 

Depreciation. — The  capital  account  will  consist  of  the  complete 
outlay  on  the  new  car ;  if  special  clothes  and  wraps  are  bought  for 
use  with  the  car  these  items  should  be  added,  likewise  any  special 
motor  house  which  has  to  be  built.  The  total  expended  should  be 
added  up,  and  then  divided  by  a  figure  which  will  give  a  value 
representing  the  decrease  in  value,  owing  to  wear  and  tear,  of  the 
car  at  the  end  of  the  year.  This  is  depreciation,  and  is  a  matter  on 
which  there  is  much  controversy  as  to  its  proper  expression. 
Depreciation  can  only  be  accurately  ascertained  when  the  car  has 
been  disposed  of,  for  then  the  loss  on  the  transaction  is  the  de¬ 
preciation  value,  and  this  sum  spread  over  the  mileage  attained 
during  ownership  will  show  how  much  must  be  added  to  the  cost 
of  fuel,  lubricants,  tyres,  and  other  items,  to  give  the  cost  per  mile 
run.  On  an  average  it  may  be  safely  assumed  that  a  new  car  loses 
20  per  cent,  in  cash  value  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  of  careful 
running,  15  per  cent,  for  the  second  and  each  subsequent  year — that 
is  to  say,  in  six  years  the  car  would  only  be  worth  a  few  pounds, 


! 


MOTORING  AND  ITS  COST  31 1 

unless  the  progress  made  in  automobile  engineering  was  slower 
than  usual. 

Petrol. — The  cost  of  petrol,  or  other  fuel,  can  of  course  be  easily 
ascertained.  The  number  of  miles  run  per  gallon  will  depend 
largely  on  the  horse-power  and  total  weight  of  the  car,  likewise  the 
care  used  in  driving,  the  type  of  roads  traversed,  and  the  frequency 
of  stoppages. 

As  much  as  60  miles  to  the  gallon  has  been  accomplished  by 
well-designed  single  cylinder  cars  running  on  good  level  roads,  but 
25  to  30  is  nearer  the  average,  while  large  heavy  cars  consume  a 
gallon  of  petrol  every  10  to  15  miles.  Reckoning  petrol  at  Is.  3d. 
per  gallon  and  the  run  of  the  average  car  on  a  gallon  of  fuel  at 
22 1  miles,  the  cost  per  mile  on  this  item  alone  is  f d. 

Lubricant. — Under  this  heading  is  placed  oil  and  grease.  The 
amount  used  on  the  car,  on  a  thousand  mile  run,  will  vary  not  only 
according  to  the  size  and  type  of  car,  and  the  roads  traversed,  but 
also  on  the  judgment  shown  in  lubricating.  There  are  occasions 
when  much  waste  occurs,  and  it  is  quite  possible  for  two  cars  built 
on  the  same  model  to  show  bills  for  lubricant  whose  totals  vary  as 
4  to  1.  A  car  should  not  cost  more  than  10s.  a  1000  miles  for  oil 
and  grease.  Lubricant  then  may  be  estimated  at  J  of  a  penny 
a  mile. 

Tyr  %es. — The  largest  item  in  the  running  expenses  is  the  tyres, 
unless  the  car  is  a  very  expensive  one,  and  is  subsequently  sold  at 
a  big  reduction,  then  the  depreciation  value  per  mile  may  even 
exceed  the  tyre  item.  The  fairest  way  to  judge  the  cost  of  tyres  is 
to  keep  an  entry  of  all  tyre  repairs  and  changes  in  conjunction 
with  the  speedometer  reading,  so  that  the  miles  run  per  cover  and 
tube  can  be  approximately  obtained.  The  life  of  tyres  is  much  a 
matter  of  luck,  especially  if  the  motorist  travels  on  unfrequented 
routes.  On  the  whole  it  has  been  observed  that  the  tyre  bill  rises 
rapidly  with  the  horse-power  and  weight  of  the  car,  so  that  it 
cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  on  the  man  of  moderate  means, 
that  a  small  light  car  not  only  means  small  outlay,  but  small 
maintenance  as  well,  while  at  the  same  time  he  may  enjoy  the 
same  delights  of  speed  up  to  the  legal  limit,  as  the  owner  of  a 
larger  car. 

Many  small  cars  up  to  say  10-H.P.  are  run  on  a  tyre  bill  of  Id. 


312 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


a  mile,  a  15-H.P.  car  will  run  into  1  d.,  a  25-H.P.  2 d.,  and  beyond 
that  size  M.  a  mile. 

Repairs  and  Renewals. — Many  cars  are  run  for  many  hundreds 
of  miles  with  but  a  few  shillings  expended  on  mechanical  repairs, 
but  this  item  sooner  or  later  mounts  up  to  a  fair  sum,  especially  if 
the  car  is  continually  used,  and  is  liable  to  be  neglected  now  and 
then.  As  an  average  one  may  consider  the  cost  under  this  head, 
for  a  small  car  £ d .  a  mile,  and  for  a  larger  sized  car  J d.  a  mile.  The 
wear  on  the  gears  depends  on  their  quality  and  not  on  the  size  of 
the  car,  so  that  a  high-priced  car  of  50  H.P.  need  not  cost  any 
more  on  repairs  than  one  of  half  that  horse-power,  but  naturally  if 
important  renewals  are  necessary,  the  larger  car  will  require  the 
greater  outlay.  It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  unlooked-for  break¬ 
downs  in  the  first  year  of  ownership  of  a  new  car  will  probably 
be  covered  by  the  maker’s  guarantee,  while  all  repairs  owing  to 
accidental  damage  may  be  covered  by  insurance,  although  some 
car  owners  have  saved  this  expense,  and  found  it  economical  in  the 
long  run,  as  naturally  it  must  be  in  many  instances,  otherwise 
insurance  companies  could  not  exist,  let  alone  prosper.  The  figures 
quoted  above  will  include  body  repairs  and  renovations. 

Insurance. — This  item  which  has  just  been  mentioned,  varies 
according  to  the  risk  covered,  the  horse-power  of  the  car,  and  its 
value  complete  with  accessories.  Policies  may  be  obtained  to  cover, 
not  only  accidental  damage  to  any  part  of  the  car,  but  destruction 
from  fire,  theft,  damage  during  transit,  and  personal  injury.  The 
policy  should  be  carefully  read  before  closing  with  the  insurance 
company,  and  it  should  be  made  plain  as  to  how  far  the  owner  is 
recompensed  for  small  items.  Various  reductions  are  allowed  if  the 
car  is  driven  only  by  the  assured,  if  no  claim  is  made,  if  all  claims 
below  a  certain  sum  are  borne  by  the  assured,  and  if  more  than  one 
policy  is  effected  at  a  time.  A  sum  of  £15  a  year  will  cover  a  great 
many  risks  on  a  £500  16-H.P.  car,  which  on  the  basis  of  a  10,000 
mileage  per  annum  works  out  about  f  d.  per  mile. 

Wages. — A  small  car  will  probably  be  run  without  hired  assist¬ 
ance  of  any  kind,  although  it  is  possible  that  money  may  be  spent 
occasionally  in  having  it  cleaned.  Large  cars,  of  course,  necessitate 
a  chauffeur,  and  wages  run  largely  according  to  competence  and 
previous  experience.  If  a  boy  receives  only  7s.  a  week,  but  lives  in, 


MOTORING  AND  ITS  COST 


3l2 


the  value  of  his  meals  and  lodgings  should  be  added.  The  wages 
item  may  vary  from,  say  £10  up  to  £250  for  a  fully-trained  man, 
and  on  an  average  one  may  reckon  on  £2  a  week,  so  that  with  a 
10,000  annual  mileage  this  item  will  be  over  2 cl.  a  mile. 

Taxes . — The  registration  of  the  car  costing  £1,  belongs  strictly 
to  the  capital  account,  but  the  driving  licence  has  to  be  renewed 
annually,  likewise  the  horse-power  tax.  The  petrol  tax  is  not  paid 
directly,  but  is  included  in  the  price  paid,  as  with  spirits  and  tobacco, 
while  rebates,  if  allowed,  have  to  be  afterwards  claimed,  a  matter 
which  sometimes  requires  a  little  persistence. 

One  may  generally  ascertain  the  tax  on  a  certain  chassis  before 
purchasing.  The  figures  are :  for  cars — 


99 


9  9 


Exceeding 


£ 

s. 

d 

61 

b.p . 

2 

2 

0 

12 

99  ..... 

3 

3 

0 

16 

. . 

4 

4 

0 

26 

99  ..... 

6 

6 

0 

33 

99 . 

8 

8 

0 

40 

99 . 

10 

10 

0 

60 

99  ..... 

21 

0 

0 

60 

99  ..... 

42 

0 

0 

The  driving  licence  costs  5s.  a  year,  a  male  servant’s  15s.,  and 
if  armorial  bearings  are  used  a  further  £2  2s.  tax  has  to  be  paid. 
Taxes  will  average  from  Jd.  to  \d.  per  mile. 

The  Cost  per  Mile  Run . — To  sum  up  the  various  items  of 
expenditure,  it  will  be  found  that  the  cost  of  running  a  small  car 


for  5,000  miles  is  somewhat  as  follows  : — 

£  s.  d. 

Initial  outlay  £250,  depreciation  at  12^  per  cent.  .  31  5  0 

Petrol  at  §  d.  per  mile . 13  17  9 

Lubricant  (oil  and  grease)  at  10s.  per  1000  ....  2  10  0 

Tyres  at  \d.  per  mile . 1084 

Repairs  and  renewals  at  \d.  per  mile . 10  8  4 

Insurance  per  annum . 800 

Wages  per  annum . 12  0  0 

Taxes  per  annum . 380 

Interest  at  4  per  cent,  on  £250  .  10  0  0 


Or  about  5 d.  a  mile  .  .  101  17  5 


One  may  see  this  cost  per  mile  stated  at  half  this  sum,  but  it 
will  be  found  that  it  assumes  the  car  to  be  worth  the  same  sum  at 


3H 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


the  end  of  the  year  as  when  bought,  and  no  allowance  is  made  for 
interest  on  capital.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the 
cost  of  the  car  in  any  case  must  be  considered,  for  the  sum  has  been 
paid  away,  and  is  a  charge  on  the  travel  account.  In  the  above 
there  is  no  charge  for  stabling  the  car. 

The  budget  for  a  larger  car  accomplishing,  say,  7,500  miles  per 
annum,  will  be  as  follows  : — 


£  s.  d. 

Initial  outlay  £600,  depreciation  at  121  per  cent.  .  75  0  0 

Petrol  at  f  d.  per  mile . 20  16  8 

Lubricant  at  10s.  per  1000  miles . 3  15  0 

Tyres  at  \\d.  per  mile . 46  17  6 

Repairs  and  renewals  at  f d.  per  mile .  23  8  9 

Insurance  per  annum . 1500 

Wages  per  annum  and  garaging .  100  0  0 

Taxes . 760 

Interest  at  4  per  cent,  on  .£600  .  24  0  0 


Or  about  10^7.  per  mile  .  .  316  3  11 

This  sum  is  naturally  easily  reduced  if  the  tyres  are  well  looked 
after  each  day,  the  roads  are  good,  and  if  the  mileage  is  increased 
to,  say,  10,000,  no  interest  is  charged  on  capital,  and  no  servant  is 
kept.  It  may  be  taken  for  granted,  however,  that  it  represents 
the  cost  for  running  a  fair-sized  car  of  25  to  30  horse-power — in 
favourable  circumstances  it  may  possibly  be  brought  as  low  as  Id. 
A  large  car  where  the  initial  outlay  runs  into  four  figures,  usually 
costs  from  Is.  a  mile  to  run,  but  in  this  case  economy  is  not  of  great 
moment. 

Bearing  in  mind  the  approximate  sum  arrived  at,  namely  5d. 
for  a  small  car  and  lOd.  for  a  larger  one,  the  first  represents  a  some¬ 
what  cheaper  rate  than  the  taxicab,  and  the  other  a  rate  per  mile 
somewhat  dearer,  which  is  reasonable  bearing  in  mind  the  various 
circumstances  entailed,  while  the  cost  per  passenger  mile  is,  of 
course,  about  half  that  of  the  above  figures,  and  depends  on  the 
average  number  of  passengers  carried. 


CHAPTER  XXX 


COMMERCIAL  MOTORING  AND  ITS  COST 

Although  this  book  does  not  reckon  to  deal  with  the  commercial 
vehicle,  yet  the  question  of  the  financial  side  of  commercial  motor¬ 
ing  is  of  primary  importance  to  many  pleasure  car  owners,  while  at 
the  same  time  the  profitable  running  of  commercial  motor  vehicles 
of  all  kinds  is  a  matter  which  affects  many  who  are  not  themselves 
motorists,  and  in  the  future  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  motor  van 
will  far  outnumber  the  pleasure  vehicle  in  a  similar  proportion  to 
that  which  obtained  fifteen  years  ago  in  the  field  of  horse- traction. 

The  Spread  of  the  use  of  Commercial  Motor  Vehicles. — So  far,  the 
greater  majority  of  motor  cars  are  utilized  for  pleasure  purposes, 
but  if  the  mechanically  propelled  vehicle  is  to  largely  supplant 
horse-drawn  traffic  as  a  whole,  then  there  is  still  an  enormous  field 
open  to  the  manufacturer  of  commercial  motor  vehicles.  Regarding 
public  service  vehicles  in  the  big  cities,  the  change  from  one  form  of 
traction  to  the  other  is  almost  complete,  especially  if  the  electric 
tramcar  is  included.  The  most  striking  feature  regarding  the  recent 
history  of  omnibuses  and  cabs  is  the  continually  increasing  numbers 
of  motor  vehicles  which  have  been  placed  on  the  streets,  together 
with  the  rapid  decrease  of  the  horsed  ’bus  and  cab.  This  class  of 
vehicle,  which  appeals  directly  to  the  public,  has  naturally  an 
educative  influence,  and  now  that  these  vehicles  are,  in  many 
instances,  found  to  run  well  under  arduous  conditions,  and  to  earn 
dividends,  if  only  small  ones,  in  some  cases,  the  result  is  a  gradual 
change  of  opinion  of  those  who  are  potential  commercial  vehicle 
buyers. 

Apart  from  mechanical  fitness,  the  question  of  cost  is  a  more 
vital  one  than  with  the  pleasure  car,  and  very  often  the  only 
obstacle  to  the  substitution  of  one  form  of  locomotion  for  the  other 


3 1 6 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


is  the  difficulty  of  convincing  the  inquirer  that  his  cartage  bill  will 
be  less,  or  in  any  case  not  any  greater  in  proportion  to  work  done. 

The  commercial  motor  movement  has  progressed  to  that  extent 
that  it  may  be  now  asserted  that  all  the  various  trades  to  which  the 
motor  can  advantageously  be  adopted  are  represented  in  the  list  of 
motor  owners,  so  that  future  work  lies  in  persuading  further  firms 
in  each  trade  to  follow  the  example  of  their  more  courageous  fellow- 
tradesmen.  Approximately,  there  are  about  eighty  distinct  trades 
whose  business  operations  include  sufficient  delivery  and  transport 
work  to  warrant  the  adoption  of  a  speedier  vehicle. 

Motor  Vans  favoured  by  Stores  and  General  Carriers. — The  class 
of  firm  which  has  found  the  motor  most  advantageous  is  the  large 
stores.  By  reason  of  the  greater  mileage  which  can  be  accom¬ 
plished  daily,  it  has  been  proved  that  the  fleets  of  these  firms  are 
enabled  to  operate  economically  over  a  very  wide  area,  which, 
naturally,  has  not  been  without  its  effect  on  the  suburban  trades¬ 
men.  These  vehicles  not  only  deliver  goods  more  cheaply,  but 
provide  a  source  of  advertisement  in  themselves  in  an  instance 
where  publicity  is  specially  sought  after. 

Other  trades,  which  may  be  taken  as  a  subdivision  of  a  stores, 
such  as  drapery,  furnishing,  provision  dealing,  and  so  on,  are  large 
customers  of  the  motor  manufacturer,  and  such  industries  where 
delivery  is  an  essential  feature,  such  as  carting,  parcel  delivering, 
laundry  work,  and  mineral  water  manufacturing,  find  the  motor 
cheaper  than  horse  traction. 

In  the  instances  mentioned,  the  petrol  motor  holds  sway,  but 
where  heavy  delivery  is  required,  such  as  in  the  various  branches  of 
the  engineering  and  building  trades,  brewery  and  milling  trades, 
municipal  and  sanitary  work  of  various  descriptions,  the  steam 
vehicle  has  been  adopted.  Where  a  bulky  load  is  made  up,  such  as 
with  market  gardeners,  a  trailer  and  tractor  are  often  used,  a  means 
adopted  in  other  trades  when  a  long  round  or  a  double  load  is 
required  to  be  carried,  and  pace  is  not  specially  sought  after. 

The  question  being  largely  a  financial  one,  the  smaller  trades¬ 
man  has  to  consider  the  loss  of  capital  through  selling  horses  and 
vans,  and  the  anxiety  attendant  upon  having  his  motors  carelessly 
handled  by  indifferent  or  unskilful  drivers,  and  the  amount  of 
proper  attention  which  will  be  given  in  the  garage.  In  most  cases, 


COMMERCIAL  MOTORING  AND  ITS  COST  317 


the  horse  and  van  proprietor  has  sufficient  knowledge  of  animals  to 
understand  at  once  if  they  are  being  cared  for  properly,  but  under 
the  new  state  of  affairs  he  has  to  largely  trust  his  employees,  and 
the  amount  of  conscientiousness  possessed  by  them  largely  decides 
the  success  of  the  motor  vehicle  in  his  particular  instance. 

Possible  Effect  on  Price  of  Commodities  and  the  Welfare  of 
Railways. — If  goods  can  be  carried  more  cheaply  in  every  trade, 
then  it  must  in  time  have  its  effect  on  prices  generally,  which  may 
not,  however,  mean  that  these  articles  will  become  cheaper  neces¬ 
sarily  ;  but  in  the  face  of  increasing  cost  of  labour,  rent,  and  other 
expenses,  it  may  be  a  factor  in  keeping  prices  stationary,  or  control 
the  rate  of  increase. 

Motor  delivery  enables  goods  to  be  packed  at  the  manufactory 
and  delivered  direct  at  the  door  of  the  retailer,  or  between  trader 
and  consumer,  without  any  intermediate  handling  or  repacking.  I11 
many  cases  this  means  that  the  railway  does  not  handle  the  goods 
at  all,  so  that,  as  has  been  stated  elsewhere,  keen  competition  must 
eventually  take  place  between  road  and  rail  goods  traffic,  especially 
for  short  distances.  With  perishable  goods,  quick  transit  may  mean 
the  difference  between  a  small  profit  and  considerable  loss. 

The  Cost  of  Running  Analysed. — The  expense  connected  with 
running  any  type  of  car  depends  on  several  circumstances.  A  well- 
designed  car — that  is,  one  which  is  built  strongly,  has  ample  wearing 
surfaces,  all  details  of  a  simple  character — is  the  first  essential,  so 
that  repairs  and  maintenance  may  be  kept  as  low  as  possible,  and 
the  depreciation  figure  adopted  shall  not  be  underrated.  The  mileage 
covered  is  also  important,  for  the  cost  per  mile  can  easily  be  doubled 
if  only  small  daily  runs  are  carried  out.  Fifty  miles  a  day  may  be 
looked  upon  as  an  all-round  paying  mileage,  with  a  minimum  of 
200  days’  run  per  annum.  If  the  mileage  is  increased  beyond  50, 
and  runs  as  high  as  80  to  100,  then  maintenance  and  repairs  will 
increase  per  mile  in  some  cases. 

The  amount  of  proper  attention  given,  both  on  the  road  and  in 
the  garage,  is  of  sufficient  importance  to  impress  on  the  proprietor 
the  necessity  of  obtaining  reliable  drivers  and  engineers.  Reports, 
repairs,  the  issuing  of  stores,  such  as  fuel,  lubricant,  and  so  on, 
should  be  done  systematically,  so  that  there  is  as  little  wastage 
as  possible  in  the  matter  of  materials  used.  Then  the  motor  van 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


itself  should  be  fairly  treated.  If  it  runs  light,  the  cost  per  ton- 
mile  will  be  increased ;  if  it  runs  heavy  to  the  point  of  overloading, 
the  cost  of  maintenance  and  repairs  will  be  raised. 

Capital  Outlay . — The  first  cost  of  the  motor  van  and  all  acces¬ 
sories  will  vary  according  to  the  horse  power,  number  of  cylinders, 
general  quality,  and  load  to  be  carried.  The  following  table  will  give 
a  good  idea  of  prices  ruling  to-day,  an  average  having  been  struck 
from  the  price  lists  of  leading  makers  : — 


Cost  of  the  Chassis  (Petrol). 


Load. 

Number  of 
cylinders. 

Approximate 

H.P. 

Price  of  chassis  only  in 
pounds  with  solid  tyres 
and  usual  accessories. 

4  ton 

2 

10-12 

290 

1  ton 

2 

12-15 

335 

1  ton 

2 

16 

350 

55 

4 

16 

425 

l18 

440 

14  tons 

4 

22 

455 

[28 

520 

(2 

18 

400 

2  tons 

2 

24 

435 

4 

22 

490 

l4 

28 

550 

24  tons 

4 

30 

580 

3  tons 

4 

25 

580 

55 

4 

35 

650 

4  tons 

4 

30 

640 

55 

4 

40 

700 

'30 

700 

5  tons 

4 

35 

725 

40 

750 

,50 

775 

6  tons 

4 

32 

750 

7  tons 

4 

35 

760 

Cost  of  the  Body. — To  the  prices  in  column  4  of  the  table  given 
must  be  added  the  cost  of  the  body.  The  following  may  be  taken 
as  a  guide  to  the  prices  of  some  leading  types  of  bodies : — 


Delivery  van  body  up  to  1  ton  .  .  . 

Large  delivery  van  body . 

Lorry  body  with  sides . 

»  ,5  tilt . 

>»  plain  platform  .  . 


£ 

40—65 

60—90 

30—50 

50—75 

20—45 


COMMERCIAL  MOTORING  AND  ITS  COST  319 


A  complete  steam  vehicle  with  load  costs  usually  between  £500 
and  £600. 

Interest  on  Outlay . — This  may  be  reckoned  at  5  per  cent., 
slightly  higher  than  necessary,  but  it  allows  for  deficiencies  in 
other  items.  Some  would  prefer  to  put  this  item  at  3-4  per 
cent. 

Depreciation . — This  is  based  on  an  estimate  regarding  the  life 
of  the  vehicle.  A  new  one  of  good  make  is  generally  reckoned  to 
last  from  5  to  6  years.  A  motor  van  will  last  5  years  if  it  is  well 
cared  for,  and  the  repairs  are  carried  out  with  a  generous  hand.  In 
this  case  20  per  cent,  of  the  capital  outlay  would  be  charged  each 
year  to  the  cost  of  running  the  vehicle.  Depreciation  may  also  be 
reckoned  according  to  mileage,  but  this  is  difficult  to  compute  be¬ 
forehand. 

Insurance . — It  is  usual  to  insure  the  van  against  damage,  per¬ 
sonal  claims,  and  so  on.  This  will  vary  according  to  the  wording 
of  the  policy,  and  the  value  and  horse-power  of  the  car.  The  annual 
premium  runs  from  £9  to  £15,  so  that  £12  may  be  taken  as  a  fair 
average. 

Wages. — The  wages  of  the  ordinary  horse  carman  were  notoriously 
low,  considering  the  long  hours  often  demanded,  and  the  constant 
responsibility.  To  add  to  this  the  care  necessary  to  control  and 
maintain  a  motor  van,  and  to  expect  the  work  to  be  done  for  the  same 
money,  is  to  court  failure.  A  good  driver  who  will  also  do  most  of 
his  own  small  repairs,  can  seldom  be  obtained  under  35 s.  per  week, 
while  a  good  mechanic  is  worth  50s.,  and  will  soon  justify  his  wage 
bill  in  the  saving  of  repairs. 

Fuel  and  Lubricant. — Petrol,  oil  and  grease  will  be  according  to 
mileage,  state  of  roads,  efficiency  of  the  car  and  the  driver,  and  the 
control  of  the  stores.  Large  firms  can  reduce  this  item  by  pur¬ 
chasing  in  bulk. 

Storage. — The  cost  of  housing  the  car  will  vary  according  to  its 
size  and  locality.  From  8s.  to  12s.  per  week,  per  car,  is  a  fail- 
average. 

Tyres. — This  item  will  often  equal  the  wages  bill.  Tyres  can  be 
obtained  on  a  10,000  mile  guarantee  basis,  and  with  careful  driving 
a  tyre  will  last  even  longer. 

Repairs. — This  is  a  widely  varying  item,  and  is  the  deciding 


320 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


factor  very  often  in  the  economical  working  of  the  car.  Some  put 
it  at  7^  per  cent,  of  the  capital  outlay  per  annum,  reckoning  it  just 
half  the  depreciation  value.  One  largely  influences  the  other.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  two  items  may  be  lumped  together  as  25  j  per  cent, 
of  the  capital  outlay.  This  figure  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  safe  one 
when  the  van  is  looked  after  with  care,  and  under  systematic 
treatment. 

Extras. — To  the  capital  outlay  may  be  added  the  cost  of  regis¬ 
tering  the  vehicle,  while  the  driver  will  provide  his  own  5s.  licence. 
With  public  service  vehicles  the  taxes  are  a  considerable  item. 

Cost  per  Mile. —  Cost  per  car  mile  is  the  expenditure  in  running 
the  van  per  mile  run  without  regard  to  the  load  carried ;  per  ton 
mile,  which  is  the  fairest  comparison,  reckons  the  w7eight  carried, 
and  therefore  bears  a  direct  relationship  to  business  done.  It  is 
therefore  obvious  that  goods  are  transported  more  cheaply  if  the  van 
is  kept  as  fully  loaded  as  possible  on  all  occasions,  and  that  a  bulky 
load  of  inexpensive  goods  does  not  pay  for  cartage  so  well  as  a  more 
compact  class  more  valuable  per  unit  of  cubic  area. 


Load 

Daily 

Weekly 

Annual 

Days  run  per 

Cost  in  pence 

Motive 

carried. 

mileage. 

mileage. 

mileage. 

annum. 

per  ton  mile. 

power. 

^  ton 

65 

355 

18,500 

285 

7 

petrol 

{  ton 

65 

340 

17,875 

275 

61 

5  5 

1  ton 

60 

310 

16,000 

270 

e| 

11  tons 

60 

300 

15,600 

260 

5 

2  tons 

60 

290 

15,300 

255 

4f 

41 

2?,  tons 

55 

265 

13,750 

250 

3  tons 

50 

240 

12,500 

250 

4} 

4  tons 

50 

240 

12,500 

250 

4 

4  tons 

40 

190 

10,000 

250 

3j 

steam 

5  tons 

50 

240 

12,500 

250 

3f 

petrol 

5  tons 

35 

170 

8,750 

250 

3 

steam 

6  tons 

45 

215 

11,250 

250 

3! 

petrol 

6  tons 

35 

170 

8,750 

250 

2“ 

steam 

1  ton 

16 

100 

4,800 

300 

6| 

horse 

The  above  costs  are  somewhat  on  the  high  side,  and  they  will 
be  reduced  when  the  mileage  is  increased,  and  there  is  a  large  fleet, 
and  good  management.  F or  instance,  a  petrol  van  run  five  hundred 
miles  a  week  will  probably  cost  only  half  the  figures  stated.  It  is 
possible  to  enter  into  contracts  whereby  the  maker  keeps  the  vehicle 


COMMERCIAL  MOTORING  AND  ITS  COST  321 


in  running  order  for  a  fixed  charge,  usually  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  16  to  18  per  cent,  of  the  capital  outlay. 

On  the  whole,  steam  traction  is  the  cheaper,  but  with  the 
heavier  vehicle  it  is  slower.  The  use  of  a  tractor  and  trailer  allows 
of  the  carriage  of  a  larger  load,  but  this  is  counterbalanced  by  the 
necessity  of  having  to  pay  an  extra  attendant,  and  the  capital  and 
maintenance  charges  of  the  trailer. 

Motor  omnibuses  have  to  bear  a  higher  proportion  of  wages. 
From  Id.  to  9 d.  may  be  reckoned  as  the  cost  per  car  mile.  A 
double-decked  bus  is  a  3-ton  vehicle,  doing  a  maximum  mileage. 
Taxi-cabs,  when  well  managed,  cost  about  5 d.  a  mile  to  run. 

A  List  of  Trades  using  Motor  Vehicles. — The  following  trades" 
find  light  and  medium  weight  vehicles  of  service. 


Athletic  Outfitters. 

Wholesale  Bakers  and  Confec¬ 
tioners. 

Beer  Bottlers. 

Bicycle  Dealers. 

Brush  Makers. 

Builders,  and  Builders’  Mer¬ 
chants. 

Cartage  Contractors  and  Parcel 
Delivery  Companies. 

Clothiers. 

Dairy  Supply  Companies. 


Drapers. 

Dyers  and  Cleaners. 

Fire  Brigades. 

Grocers  and  Stores. 

Laundry  men. 

Newspaper  Proprietors  and 
Wholesale  Agents. 

Printers  and  Stationers. 
Refreshment  Contractors. 

Tailors  and  Clothiers. 

Tobacco  Merchants. 


The  heavier  class  of  vehicle  is  used  by — 


Ammunition  Manufacturers. 
Billiard  Table  Manufacturers. 
Boiler  Makers. 

Bottle  Manufacturers. 

Brewers. 

Brick  and  Tile  Makers. 
Builders,  Shopfitters,  and 
Builders’  Merchants. 
Butchers. 

Cabinet  Makers. 


Cotton  and  Woollen  Goods 
Manufacturers  and  Merchants. 
Cartage  Contractors. 

Carpet  Cleaners  and  Manu¬ 
facturers. 

Chemists,  Manufacturing. 

China,  Glass  and  Pottery  Makers. 
Coal  Merchants. 

Colour  and  Varnish  Makers. 
Corn  and  Flour  Merchants. 


Y 


322 


MOTOR  BODIES  AND  CHASSIS 


Electrical  Goods  Manufacturers. 
Engineering  Trades,  various. 
House  Furnishers  and  Removers. 
Jam  Makers. 

Market  Gardeners. 

Match  Makers. 

Mineral  Water  Manufacturers. 
Motor  Car  Manufacturers. 


Municipal  Contractors. 

Paper  Makers. 

Pianoforte  Makers. 

Railway  Companies. 

Soap  Makers. 

Timber  Merchants. 

Wine  Merchants  and  Distiller 


INDEX 


A 

Accessories,  body,  152-157 
chassis,  294-298 

Accumulators,  capacity  of,  145,  146 
ignition,  192-196 
lighting,  145 

Acetylene  lamps,  148,  149 
Ackermann  axle,  250 
Adams  change  speed  gear,  231-233 
Adjustment,  brake,  246,  247,  301,  302 
door,  89 

steering  column,  253 
Air  cooling,  216,  217 
Amperes,  193,  195,  198 
Artillery  wheels,  255-257 
Ash,  English  and  American,  78 
Attachment,  gear  box,  223 
spring,  283,  284 
tyre  (pneumatic),  269,  270 
tyre  (solid),  265 
Auxiliary  springs,  282,  283 
Axle,  Ackermann,  250 
back,  228,  229 

back,  and  body  design,  10,  11,  68 
B 

Back  of  body,  design  of,  26,  69-71 
light.  See  Tail  Light. 

Basket  work,  108 
Batteries,  primary,  191,  192 
Bearings,  crank  shaft,  179-185 
Bells,  foot,  296 
Bent  timber,  91,  131 
Berline,  6 
Bevelled  glass,  108 
Blinds,  101,  307 
Blister  steel,  285 
Blue  print,  coachbuilder’s,  54,  61 
Body  design  and  weather  protection,  141 
142 

price  of,  309,  318 
props,  77,  132,  133 
Bodywork,  care  of,  302-307 
Bonnets,  140,  141 
Bows,  cape  hood,  76,  77,  131-133 


Brake  adjustment,  246,  247 
compensation,  247 
double  action,  247 
emergency,  241,  242 
friction,  242,  243 
front  wheel,  248,  249 
lever  and  connections,  245,  246 
pedals,  243 
service,  241 
transmission,  243,  244 
Brakes,  241-249 
wheel,  246,  247 
Brass  plating,  110,  304,  305 
Brick  heaters,  102 
Brougham,  definition  of,  4 
design  of,  32,  33 
doors,  35,  36 

double.  See  Double  Broughams 
Buffalo  hides,  97 

C 

C  Springs,  281,  282 
Cabinet  work,  100 
Cabinets  (companions),  99 
Cabriolets,  definition  of,  5,  6 
design  of,  40-43 
Cam  shafts,  182,  183 
Caning,  108 

Canopies,  4,  6,  33,  36,  39,  40,  41,  42, 
44,  50,  91 
Cantines,  99 

Cape  hood,  curtains,  136 
setting  out,  76,  77 
single,  19,  131-133 
Cape  hoods,  131-136 
Carburation,  166 
Carburettor,  float  feed,  167-170 
position  of,  165,  169,  173 
Carving,  28 
Cell,  electric,  191,  192 
Cementation  process,  285 
Chain  cases,  141 
Chassis,  choice  of,  158-162 
influence  on  body  sizes,  10,  11,  64-74 
painting,  117,  118 
price,  308,  309,  318 


324 


INDEX 


Check  string,  156 

Circuit,  the  electric,  196,  197,  204,  212 
Cloth,  colour  of,  97,  104-107 
quality  of,  97 
Clothing,  142,  143 
Clutch,  cone,  220,  221 
expanding,  223 

in  driving  and  gear  changing,  219 
multiple  disc,  222 
reversed  cone,  221,  222 
single  plate,  222,  223 
Coils,  non-trembler,  205 
trembler,  205-208 
Colour  coats,  116,  117 
nomenclature,  121 
schemes,  103-109 
Coloured  drawings,  54 
Commercial  traveller’s  two-seater,  20 
vehicle  cost,  315-321 
Communicators,  156 
Companions,  99 

Condenser,  the,  207,  208,  210,  211 
Cone  clutch,  220,  221 
Connecting  rods,  177 
Constant  mesh  gears,  224,  225 
Contact  breakers,  205,  209,  211 
makers,  205,  206 
Cooling  of  the  cylinders,  213-217 
Corridor  entrance,  6,  7 
Cost  per  mile,  313,  314 
ton  mile,  320 

Coupling,  series  and  parallel,  193-195 
Cover,  the  outer,  263,  264 
manufacture,  266-268 
Crank  case,  170-172,  179 
Crank  shaft  bearings,  179-185 
Curtains,  hood,  136 
Cushions,  66,  71,  93,  96,  97,  99 
Cushion  tyres,  279 

Cylinder  casting,  the,  170,  173,  174,  175 
Cylinders,  number  of,  175 
order  of  firing  of,  175 
Cyphers  (heraldic),  111 


D 

O -fronted  broughams,  4 
landaulettes,  4,  5,  36,  37 
limousines,  6 

0 -fronts,  disadvantage  of,  36 
design  of,  36,  37 

Depreciation,  310,  311,  319 

Detachable  flanges,  278 
rims,  277,  278 
tops,  7,  39,  45,  48,  145 
wheels,  277 
wings,  139 

Differential  gear,  220,  227,  228 


Direct  drive,  225,  226 
Disc  clutch,  multiple,  222 
Dished  wheels,  258 
Distance  recorders,  297,  298 
Divisible  hoods,  135,  136 
Dogcart  phaetons,  definition  of,  7 
Door  hinges,  88,  89 
locks,  89 

position,  9,  10,  13,  67,  68 
Doors,  brougham,  35,  36 
half.  See  Half  Doors 
Doorways,  9,  10,  13,  67,  68 
Double  action  brakes,  247 
broughams,  7,  33 
broughams,  design  of,  33 
enclosed  cars,  47,  48 
extension  hoods,  76,  77,  131-136 
landaulettes,  4,  5.  See  also  Limou¬ 
sine  Landaulettes 
landaulettes,  design  of,  36-38 
phaetons,  definition  of,  3 
shell  joints,  133 
Dovetails,  door,  89 
Drawing,  body,  54,  57-77 
instruments,  57-60 
scale,  61 

Driving  mirrors,  154 
Dusting  the  body,  113 

E 

Elbow  line,  12,  66 
spring,  280 

Electric  communicators,  156 
lamps,  144-148 
Electro -plating,  110 
Elliptic  spring,  281,  283 
Enamel,  120.  See  also  Stove  Ena¬ 
melling. 

Engine  arrangement,  173 
Epicyclic  gear,  229-233 
Exhaust  pipes,  186 
whistles,  295 
Expanding  clutch,  223 
Extra  side-light  landaulettes  (see  also 
Limousine  Landaulettes),  5 


F 

Fan,  the,  216 
Filling-up  coats,  114,  115 
(french-polishing),  124,  125 
Fingers  of  hood  joints,  133 
Flaps,  glass,  157 
Flat  surfaces  in  design,  16 
Flatting,  117 
Floor  comfort,  98 


INDEX 


325 


Flush-sided  phaetons,  design  of,  24-26, 
62-77 

Flywheels,  218 

single  cylinder,  220 
Foot  bells,  296 
warmers,  102 

Forced  feed  lubrication,  237 
Framework  allowances,  11,  70,  71 
Framing  up  bodywork,  85,  86,  87 
Freehand  drawing,  67 
French  polishing,  124,  125 
Front  standing  pillar  and  design,  14,  78, 
79 

wheel  brakes,  248,  249 


G 

Gangways,  9,  10 
Gear,  box,  223-227,  229-234 
box  design,  226 
box  brake,  243,  245 
constant  mesh,  224,  225 
differential,  227,  228 
lever  working,  75,  224 
neutral,  219 
ratios,  219 
wheels,  226,  227 

wheels,  revolution,  direction  of,  224 
Gilding  wheels,  121,  122 
Glass,  bevelled,  108 
flaps,  157 
frame  carriers,  90 
frame  disposal,  39,  79 
frame  strings,  98 
frame  supports,  90 
Gravity  feed  lubrication,  235,  236 
fuel  tanks,  164,  165 
Grease  cups,  239,  240 
Gudgeon  pins,  177 
Guides,  tappet,  180 
valve,  180,  181 


H 

Half  doors,  10,  33 
elliptic  spring,  280,  281,  283,  284 
Hampers,  155 

Handles,  conveniently  placed,  100 
Hard  stopper,  118 
Hat  boxes,  155 
and  parcel  racks,  99 

Head  ironwork,  89,  90.  See  also  Head 
Openings. 
lamps,  147,  148 
openings,  cabriolet,  40-43 
openings,  double  landaulette,  37 
openings,  landau,  5,  39,  40 


Head  openings,  limousine,  44 

openings,  limousine  landaulette,  38 
openings,  single  landaulette,  33-36 
room,  8 

Heating  the  body,  102 
Heraldic  display,  110,  111 
High  tension  ignition,  204-212 
battery  ignition,  204-208 
magneto  ignition,  208-212 
Hind  corners.  See  Round  Corners 
seat,  design  of  single,  21,  22 
seat,  position,  13,  66 
seat  width,  70,  71 
seat  wind  screen,  131 
standing  pillar  in  limousines,  14,  15,  79 
Hinges,  door,  88,  89 

Hoods  of  two-seated  cars,  10.  See  also 
Cape  Hoods. 

Hooters,  294 
Horns,  electric,  294,  295 
Horse-power,  188,  189 
House,  the  motor,  303 


I 

Igniter.  See  Low-Tension  Igniter 
Ignition,  190-212 
care  of,  302 

Indiarubber.  See  Rubber 
Induction,  magnetic,  197,  198,  202-204 
Inlet  valves.  See  Valves 
Inner  tube  manufacture,  266 
protection,  264 
Insurance,  312,  319 
Interior  illumination,  144-146 
Irreversible  steering,  254 


J 

Jacks,  298 

Joinery,  coach,  87,  88 

Joints  used  in  bodymaking,  83,  84,  90 


K 

Knee  room,  9 
Knuckle  joints,  134,  135 


L 

Laces,  coach,  98 
Lamps,  acetylene,  148,  149 
dashboard,  147,  148,  149 
electric,  147,  148 


326 


INDEX 


Lamps,  head,  147,  148,  149 
legal  requirements,  147 
petroleum,  149,  150 
pillar,  147 
roof,  144-146 
steering  column,  148 
wiring  of,  145,  146 
Landau,  definition  of,  5 
design  of,  39,  40 
Landaulet  limousine,  5 
trois-quarts,  5.  See  also  Limousine 
Landaulette 

Landaulette,  double.  See  Double  Lan¬ 
daulette 

phaeton.  See  Cabriolet 
single.  See  Single  Landaulette 
Leather  for  upholstery,  97 
Leg  room,  8,  9,  67 
Lever,  brake,  245,  246 
Levers,  enclosing  the,  73-75 
Light  body  construction,  78-81 
Lighting  accumulators,  145,  146 
Lights.  See  Glass  Frames 
fixing  of,  15 
in  limousines,  43,  44 
Limousine,  definition  of,  6 
design  of,  43-46 
landaulette,  definition  of,  5 
landaulette,  design  of,  38,  39 
landaulette,  parts  of,  151 
Lining  tools,  121,  122 
Linley  gear  box,  233,  234 
Locker  space,  50,  51 
Lockers,  step,  95 
Locks,  door,  89 

Long  side  steps,  51,  69,  94,  152,  153 
Lonsdale  wagonettes,  definition  of,  7 
design  of,  50 

Low-tension  battery  ignition,  197,  198, 

201,  202 

magneto  ignition,  198,  200,  202-204 
igniter,  201,  202 
Lubricants,  239 
Lubrication,  235-240,  300,  301 
forced  feed,  237 
gravity  feed,  235,  236 
splash,  236,  237 
spring,  293,  301 
Luggage  car  design,  48-50 
grids,  51,  154 

M 

Machinery,  wood  working,  82 
Magneto,  high-tension,  208-212 
low-tension,  198-200 
Mileage,  tyre,  274 
Mirrors,  toilet,  99 
driving,  154 
Monograms,  111 


Morocco  leather,  97 
Moulding  display,  13,  14,  76 
Mounting  the  body,  90,  93,  94 
Multiple  disc  clutch,  222 

N 

Neutral  gear,  219 
Nickel  plating,  110 

O 

Odometer,  297,  298 
Ogee  tumunder,  2 
Omnibus,  definition  of,  7 
private,  design  of,  50 
cost  of  running  public  service,  321 
“  One  man  ”  hoods,  135 
Ordering  a  body,  52,  53,  54 
Otto  cycle,  the,  172 

Outer  cover,  the,  263,  264,  266-268.  See 
also  Cover 

Outside  joints,  134,  135 

P 

Padding,  restricted,  98 
Paint.  See  also  Colour 
removing,  121 
Paints,  ready  prepared,  112 
Painting,  time  factor  in,  109,  110,  118-120 
Panel  blocking,  90 
canvasing,  90 
!  Panels,  wood,  86 
Parallel  coupling,  193,  195 
I  Parcel  and  hat  racks,  99 
Pattern  making  for  bodies,  81 
j  Pedals,  brake,  243 
I  Petrol,  163 

i  Petroleum  lamps,  149,  151 
Phaetons.  See  under  Double,  Pro¬ 
tected,  “  Roi-des-Belges,”  Ro¬ 
tund,  Side  -  entrance,  Single, 
Triple,  Tulip,  and  so  on. 

|  Pillar  catches,  89 
hinges,  89,  90 
lamps,  147 
tops,  33,  34,  35,  38 
Pistons,  175,  177 
Piston  valves,  186,  217 
Plain  tumunder,  1,  2 
!  Plate  clutch,  222,  223 
Platform  steps.  See  Long  Side  Steps 
Pneumatic  auxiliary  springs,  282,  283 
Polished  woodwork,  108,  109,  124,  125 
Preservation  of  the  car,  299-307 
Pressure  fuel  tanks,  164,  165 
Price  of  body,  309,  318 
of  chassis,  308,  309,  318 
Priming  coats,  113,  114 
Private  omnibus  design,  50 


INDEX 


327 


Protected,  4 

phaetons,  definition  of,  4 
phaetons,  design  of,  30,  31 
Pullmans,  6,  7 

Pumped  water  circulation,  214,  215 
Pumps,  oil,  236,  237,  238 
water,  214,  215 

R 

Racing  types  of  two-seaters,  20 
Radiators,  215,  216,  301 
Recessing,  17 
Repainting,  120,  121 
Resilient  wheels,  261,  262 
Reversed  cone  clutch,  221,  222 
Rims,  detachable,  276-278 
Roi-des- Beiges  phaetons,  design  of,  30 
turnunder,  2,  25 
Roll  on  doors,  27,  28 
Roof  covering,  114 
lamps,  144,  145 
line,  12 
seats,  50 
sweep,  17 

Rotund  phaetons,  design  of,  27,  28 
turnunder,  2 

Round  corners,  16,  25,  72,  73 
Rubber  manufacture,  265,  266 
Rubbing  down,  115,  116 

S 

Safety  spark  gap,  212 

Saloons,  6,  7 

Scale  drawing,  54,  61, 

Scuttle  dash,  26,  68,  69,  76,  93 
Seasoned  timber,  83,  113 
Seat  construction,  saving  weight  in,  80 
line,  12,  66,  67,  70,  71 
room,  9,  70,  71 
Second-hand  cars,  160-162 
“  Sedan  chair  ”  body,  46 
Self -driving  cars,  6 
Semi-flush-sided  phaetons,  26,  27 
Semi-“  torpedoes,”  27 
Series  coupling,  193-195 
Shackles,  spring,  283,  284 
Shock  absorbers,  282 
Shooting  brake  design,  48-50 
Side-entrance  phaetons,  3,  4,  23-31 
light  landaulettes.  See  Limousine 
Landaulettes 
springs,  280,  281,  283,  284 
sweep,  15,  16,  75 
Silencer,  the,  186 
Single  broughams,  definition  of,  4 
broughams,  design  of,  32,  33 
enclosed  cars,  definition  of,  6 
enclosed  cars,  design  of,  46,  47 
landaulettes,  definition  of,  4 


Single  landaulettes,  design  of,  33-36 
Single  phaetons.  See  Two-seated  Cars 
plate  clutch,  222,  223 
Sketches,  body,  54 
Sleeve  valves,  185,  186 
Spare  parts,  160 
Speaking  tubes,  156,  157 
Speedometers,  296-298 
Splash  lubrication,  236,  237 
Spots,  removing,  306 
Spring  attachment,  283,  284 
C,  281,  282 
dimensions,  291,  292 
elbow,  280 
elliptic,  281 

half  elliptic,  280,  281,  283,  284 
hardening,  290,  291 
length,  286 
lubrication,  293,  301 
manufacture,  289-290 
steel,  284-286 
strength,  286-290 
tempering,  290,  291 
three-quarter  elliptic,  281 
Springs,  280-293 
varieties  of,  280-283 
Squabbing,  97 
Staining  coat,  115 

Standing  pillars.  See  Front  and  Hind 
Standing  Pillars  respectively 
Steel,  chrome-vanadium,  285,  286 
silico- manganese,  285,  286 
spring,  284-286 
Steering  column  lamp,  148 
columns,  253 
gear,  250-254 
irreversible,  254 
tillers,  253 
wheels,  253 
Step  guards,  140 

Steps,  69.  See  also  Long  Side  Stets 
Stopping  up,  114,  115 
Stove  enamelling  or  japanning,  123,  124 
Straight -backed  phaetons,  design  of,  27 
turnunder,  1,  2 
Striping,  108 
Syrens,  295,  296 

T 

Tables,  folding,  100 
chassis  price  (commercial),  318 
spring  sizes,  292 
time,  painting,  119,  120 
tyre  load,  274,  275 
tyre  pressure,  274 
Tachometer,  298 
Tail  light,  147,  148,  149,  151 
Tanks,  fuel,  164,  165,  166 
position  of,  93,  94 


328 


INDEX 


Tappets,  180-182 
Taxes,  313,  320 

Thermo-syphon  system,  213,  214 
Three-quarter  elliptic  springs,  281 

landaulettes.  See  Limousine  Landau - 

LETTES 

Three-seated  cars,  2,  3,  21,  22 
Timber,  81,  83.  See  also  Ash 
bent,  91,  131 
seasoning,  83,  113 

Time  factor  in  painting,  109,  110,  119,  120 
tables,  painting,  119,  120 
Timing  the  spark,  200,  201 
Tonneau  phaetons,  3,  23,  24 
Tool  boxes,  152-154 
Top  props,  134 

“  Torpedo  ”  bodies,  design  of,  24-27. 

See  also  Flush-sided  Phaetons 
Trades  using  motors,  321,  322 
Transmission,  218-234 
brake,  243,  245 
Trembler  coils,  205-208 
Trial  runs,  160 
Triple  phaetons,  3,  4 
Trunks,  154,  156 
Tubes.  See  Inner  Tubes 
Tubular  hood  joints,  133 
Tulip  phaetons,  29,  30 
turnunder,  2 
Turnunder,  1,  2,  79 
Two-seated  cars,  2,  77-21 
Tyre  attachment,  269-27 1 
attachment,  solid,  265 
channels,  257,  258 
cover  treads,  263,  264 
detachment,  271 
fillings,  278,  279 
loads  (pneumatic),  274,  275 
loads  (solid),  275 
manipulation,  269-27 1 
manufacture,  pneumatic,  266-268 
manufacture,  solid,  268,  269 
mileage,  274 
preservation,  271,  272 
pressures,  274 
repairs,  272,  273 
sizes,  215,  276 
Tyres,  cushion,  279 
rubber,  263-279 
and  speed,  264,  265 

U 

Umbrella  holders,  99 
Undershields,  140 
Unit  construction,  226 
Upholstery,  function  of,  96.  See  also 
Cloth,  Cushions,  Glass  Strings, 
Leather,  Squabbing,  and  so  on. 


V 

Valve  caps,  178 
grinding,  302 
mechanism,  179-182 
piston,  186 
position,  173,  174 
sleeve,  185-186 
tappets,  180-182 
timing,  172-173 

Varnished  (natural  finish)  woodwork,  109, 
118 

Varnishing  coats,  117 

Ventilation,  101,  102 

Victoria  phaeton  design,  28,  29 

Volts,  193 

Vulcanising,  268,  272,  273 


W 

Wages,  312,  313,  319 
Wagonettes,  definition  of,  7 
design  of,  48-50 
Lonsdale,  definition  of,  7 
Wastings,  88,  100 
Water  cooling,  213,  216,  217 
jacketing,  177,  178 
Watts,  193 

Weight  saving  in  body  construction,  78-81 
Wheel,  artillery,  255,  256 
brakes,  front,  248,  249 
brakes,  internal  expanding,  246,  247 
built-up  metal,  259 
cast-steel,  259 
detachable,  277 
dished,  258 
lock,  252 
making,  256-258 
metal,  258,  259 
pressed  steel,  259 
resilient,  261,  262 
road,  255-262 
sizes,  262 
wire,  259-261 
Whistles,  exhaust,  295 
Wind  screens,  126-131 
screens,  joints  of,  130,  131 
screens,  varieties  of,  127-128 
Windows.  See  Lights 
Wings,  93,  94,  136-139 
design  of,  69 
detachable,  139 
flanges  of,  137 
sideguards  of,  137 
wooden,  137 
Wire  wheels,  259-261 
Wiring  of  inside  lamps,  145 
Wood-working  machinery,  82,  256,  257 


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Bailey,  R.  D.  The  Brewers’  Analyst . Svo,  *5  00 

Baker,  A.  L.  Quaternions . 8vo,  *1  25 

- Thick-Lens  Optics . (In  Press.) 

Baker,  Benj.  Pressure  of  Earthwork.  (Science  Series  No.  56.)...i6mo, 

Baker,  I.  0.  Levelling.  (Science  Series  No.  91.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Baker,  M.  N.  Potable  Water.  (Science  Series  No.  61.) . i6mo,  050 

— : — Sewerage  and  Sewage  Purification.  (Science  Series  No.  18.). . i6mo,  o  50 

Baker,  T.  T.  Telegraphic  Transmission  of  Photographs . i2mo,  *1  25 

Bale,  G.  R.  Modern  Iron  Foundry  Practice.  Two  Volumes,  nmo. 

Vol.  I.  Foundry  Equipment,  Materials  Used .  *2  50 

Vol.  II.  Machine  Moulding  and  Moulding  Machines .  *1  50 

Bale,  M.  P.  Pumps  and  Pumping . i2mo,  1  50 

Ball,  R.  S.  Popular  Guide  to  the  Heavens . 8vo,  *4  50 

- Natural  Sources  of  Power.  (Westminster  Series.) . 8vo,  *200 

Ball,  W.  V.  Law  Affecting  Engineers . 8vo,  *3  50 

Bankson,  Lloyd.  Slide  Valve  Diagrams.  (Science  Series  No.  108.) .  i6mo,  050 

Barba,  J.  Use  of  Steel  for  Constructive  Purposes . i2mo,  1  00 

Barham,  G.  B.  Development  of  the  Incandescent  Electric  Lamp.  .  .  .  (In  Press.) 


4  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Barker,  A.  Textiles  and  Their  Manufacture.  (Westminster  Series.) ..  8vo,  200 

Barker,  A.  H.  Graphic  Methods  of  Engine  Design . 12010,  *1  50 

Barnard,  F.  A.  P.  Report  on  Machinery  and  Processes  of  the  Industrial 
Arts  and  Apparatus  of  the  Exact  Sciences  at  the  Paris  Universal 

Exposition,  1867 . 8vo,  5  00 

Barnard,  J.  H.  The  Naval  Militiaman’s  Guide . i6mo,  leather  1  25 

Barnard,  Major  J.  G.  Rotary  Motion.  (Science  Series  No.  90.) _ i6mo,  o  50 

Barrus,  G.  H.  Boiler  Tests . 8vo,  *3  00 

- Engine  Tests . 8vo,  *4  00 

The  above  two  purchased  together .  *6  00 

Barwise,  S.  The  Purification  of  Sewage . i2mo,  3  50 

Baterden,  J.  R.  Timber.  (Westminster  Series.) . 8vo,  *2  00 

Bates,  E.  L.,  and  Charlesworth,  F.  Practical  Mathematics . 12 mo, 

Part  I.  Preliminary  and  Elementary  Course .  *1  50 

Part  II.  Advanced  Course .  *1  50 

Beadle,  C.  Chapters  on  Papermaking.  Five  Volumes . i2mo,  each,  *2  00 

Beaumont,  R.  Color  in  Woven  Design . 8vo, 

- - Finishing  of  Textile  Fabrics . 8vo,  *4  00 

Beaumont,  W.  W.  The  Steam-Engine  Indicator . 8vo,  250 

Bedell,  F.,  and  Pierce,  C.  A.  Direct  and  Alternating  Current  Manual.8vo,  *2  00 

Beech,  F.  Dyeing  of  Cotton  Fabrics . 8vo,  *300 

- Dyeing  of  Woolen  Fabrics . 8vo,  *3  50 

Beckwith,  A.  Pottery . 8vo,  paper,  060 

Begtrup,  J.  The  Slide  Valve . 8vo,  *2  00 

Beggs,  G.  E.  Stresses  in  Railway  Girders  and  Bridges . (In  Press.) 

Bender,  C.  E.  Continuous  Bridges.  (Science  Series  No.  26.) . i6mo,  o  50 

- Proportions  of  Piers  used  in  Bridges.  (Science  Series  No.  4.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Bennett,  H.  G.  The  Manufacture  of  Leather . : . 8vo,  *450 

Bernthsen,  A.  A  Text  -  book  of  Organic  Chemistry.  Trans,  by  G. 

M’Gowan . i2mo,  *2  50 

Berry,  W.  J.  Differential  Equations  of  the  First  Species.  i2mo  (In  Preparation.) 
Bersch,  J.  Manufacture  of  Mineral  and  Lake  Pigments.  Trans,  by  A.  C. 

Wright . . . 8vo,  *5  00 

Bertin,  L.  E.  Marine  Boilers.  Trans,  by  L.  S.  Robertson . 8vo,  5  00 

Beveridge,  J.  Papermaker’s  Pocket  Book . nmo,  *400 

Binns,  C.  F.  Ceramic  Technology . 8vo,  *5  00 

- Manual  of  Practical  Potting . 8vo,  *7  50 

- The  Potter’s  Craft . nmo,  *2  00 

Birchmore,  W.  H.  <How  to  Use  a  Gas  Analysis . i2mo,  *1  25 

Blaine,  R.  G.  The  Calculus  and  Its  Applications . i2mo,  *1  50 

Blake,  W.  H.  Brewers’  Vade  Mecum . 8vo,  *4  00 

Blake,  W.  P.  Report  upon  the  Precious  Metals . 8vo,  2  00 

Bligh,  W.  G.  The  Practical  Design  of  Irrigation  Works . 8vo,  *600 

Bliicher,  H.  Modern  Industrial  Chemistry.  Trans,  by  J.  P.  Millington 

8vo,  *7  50 

Blyth,  A.  W.  Foods:  Their  Composition  and  Analysis . 8vo,  750 

- Poisons:  Their  Effects  and  Detection . 8vo,  7  50 

Bockmann,  F.  Celluloid . * . i2mo,  *2  50 

Bodmer,  G.  R.  Hydraulic  Motors  and  Turbines . nmo,  5  00 

Boileau,  J.  T.  Traverse  Tables . 8vo,  5  00 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  5 

Bonney,  G.  E.  The  Electro-platers’  Handbook . nmo,  i  20 

Booth,  W.  H.  Water  Softening  and  Treatment . 8vo,  *2  50 

- Superheaters  and  Superheating  and  Their  Control . 8vo,  *1  50 

Bottcher,  A.  Cranes:  Their  Construction,  Mechanical  Equipment  and 

Working.  Trans,  by  A.  Tolhausen . 4to,  *10  00 

Bottler,  M.  Modern  Bleaching  Agents.  Trans,  by  C.  Salter . i2mo,  *2  50 

Bottone,  S.  R.  Magnetos  for  Automobilists . i2mo,  *1  00 

Boulton,  S.  B.  Preservation  of  Timber.  (Science  Series  No.  82.).i6mo,  o  50 
Bourgougnon,  A.  Physical  Problems.  (Science  Series  No.  ii3.)..i6mo,  o  50 
Bourry,  E.  Treatise  on  Ceramic  Industries.  Trans,  by  J.  J.  Sudborough. 

8vo,  *5  00 

Bow,  R.  H.  A  Treatise  on  Bracing . 8vo,  1  50 

Bowie,  A.  J.,  Jr.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Hydraulic  Mining . 8vo,  5  00 

Bowker,  W.  R.  Dynamo,  Motor  and  Switchboard  Circuits . 8vo,  *2  50 

Bowles,  0.  Tables  of  Common  Rocks.  (Science  Series  No.  125.). .  i6mo,  o  50 

Bowser,  E.  A.  Elementary  Treatise  on  Analytic  Geometry . nmo,  1  75 

- Elementary  Treatise  on  the  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus. i2mo,  2  25 

- Elementary  Treatise  on  Analytic  Mechanics . nmo,  3  00 

- Elementary  Treatise  on  Hydro-mechanics . i2mo,  2  50 

- -  A  Treatise  on  Roofs  and  Bridges . i2mo,  *2  25 

Boycott,  G.  W.  M.  Compressed  Air  Work  and  Diving . 8vo,  *4  00 

Bragg,  E.  M.  Marine  Engine  Design . nmo,  *2  00 

Brainard,  F.  R.  The  Sextant.  (Science  Series  No.  101.) . i6mo, 

Brassey’s  Naval  Annual  for  1911 .  8vo,  *6  00 

Brew,  W.  Three-Phase  Transmission . 8vo,  *2  00 

Brewer,  R.  W.  A.  The  Motor  Car . nmo,  *2  00 

Briggs,  R.,  and  Wolff,  A.  R.  Steam-Heating.  (Science  Series  No. 

67.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Bright,  C.  The  Life  Story  of  Sir  Charles  Tilson  Bright . 8vo,  *4  50 

British  Standard  Sections . 8x15  *1  00 

Complete  list  of  this  series  (45  parts)  sent  on  application. 

Broadfoot,  S.  K.  Motors,  Secondary  Batteries.  (Installation  Manuals 

Series) . nmo,  *0  75 

Broughton,  H.  H.  Electric  Cranes  and  Hoists .  *9  00 

Brown,  G.  Healthy  Foundations.  (Science  Series  No.  80.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Brown,  H.  Irrigation . 8vo,  *5  00 

Brown,  Wm.  N.  The  Art  of  Enamelling  on  Metal . nmo,  *1  00 

- Handbook  on  Japanning  and  Enamelling . nmo,  *1  50 

- House  Decorating  and  Painting . nmo,  *1  50 

- History  of  Decorative  Art . nmo,  *1  25 

- Dipping,  Burnishing,  Lacquering  and  Bronzing  Brass  Ware. .  .nmo,  *1  00 

- Workshop  Wrinkles . 8vo,  *1  00 

Browne,  R.  E.  Water  Meters.  (Science  Series  No.  81.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Bruce,  E.  M.  Pure  Food  Tests . . nmo,  *1  25 

Bruhns,  Dr,  New  Manual  of  Logarithms . 8vo,  half  morocco,  2  50 

Brunner,  R.  Manufacture  of  Lubricants,  Shoe  Polishes  and  Leather 

Dressings.  Trans,  by  C.  Salter . 8vo,  *3  00  * 

Buel,  R.  H.  Safety  Valves.  (Science  Series  No.  21.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Bulman,  H.  F.,  and  Redmayne,  R.  S.  A.  Colliery  Working  and  Manage¬ 
ment . . 8 vo,  6  00 

Burgh,  N.  P.  Modern  Marine  Engineering . 4to,  half  morocco,  10  00 


6  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 


Burt,  W.  A.  Key  to  the  Solar  Compass . i6mo,  leather,  2  50 

Burton,  F.  G.  Engineering  Estimates  and  Cost  Accounts . i2mo,  *1  50 

Buskett,  E.  W.  Fire  Assaying . i2mo,  *1  25 

Cain,  W.  Brief  Course  in  the  Calculus . i2mo,  *1  75 

- Elastic  Arches.  (Science  Series  No.  48.) . i6mo,  o  50 

- Maximum  Stresses.  (Science  Series  No.  38.) . i6mo,  o  50 

- Practical  Designing  Retaining  of  Walls.  (Science  Series  No.  3.) 

i6mo,  0  50 

- Theory  of  Steel-concrete  Arches  and  of  Vaulted  Structures. 

(Science  Series  No.  42.) . i6mo,  o  50 

- Theory  of  Voussoir  Arches.  (Science  Series  No.  12.) . i6mo,  o  50 

- Symbolic  Algebra.  (Science  Series  No.  73.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Campin,  F.  The  Construction  of  Iron  Roofs . 8vo,  2  00 

Carpenter,  F.  D.  Geographical  Surveying.  (Science  Series  No.  37.).  i6mo, 
Carpenter,  R.  C.,  and  Diederichs,  H.  Internal  Combustion  Engines.  8vo,  *5  00 
Carter,  E.  T.  Motive  Power  and  Gearing  for  Electrical  Machinery  .  .8vo,  *5  00 

Carter,  H.  A.  Ramie  (Rhea),  China  Grass . i2mo,  *2  00 

Carter,  H.  R.  Modern  Flax,  Hemp,  and  Jute  Spinning . 8vo,  *300 

Cathcart,  W.  L.  Machine  Design.  Parti.  Fastenings . 8vo,  *3  00 

Cathcart,  W.  L.,  and  Chaffee,  J.  I.  Elements  of  Graphic  Statics . 8vo,  *3  00 

- Short  Course  in  Graphics . i2mo,  1  50 

Caven,  R.  M.,  and  Lander,  G.  D.  Systematic  Inorganic  Chemistry.  i2mo,  *2  00 

Chambers’ Mathematical  Tables . 8vo,  1  75 

Charnock,  G.  F.  Workshop  Practice.  (Westminster  Series.).  .  .  .8vo  {In  Press.) 

Charpentier,  P.  Timber . 8vo,  *6  00 

Chatley,  H.  Principles  and  Designs  of  Aeroplanes.  (Science  Series.) 

No.  126.) . i6mo,  o  50 

- How  to  Use  Water  Power . i2mo,  *1  00 

Child,  C.  T.  The  How  and  Why  of  Electricity . i2mo,  1  00 

Christie,  W.  W.  Boiler- waters,  Scale,  Corrosion,  Foaming . 8vo,  *3  00 

- Chimney  Design  and  Theory . 8vo,  *3  00 

- Furnace  Draft.  (Science  Series  No.  123.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Church’s  Laboratory  Guide.  Rewritten  by  Edward  Kinch . 8vo,  *2  50 

Clapperton,  G.  Practical  Papermaking . . . . . 8vo,  2  50 

Clark,  A.  G.  Motor  Car  Engineering.  Vol.  1.  Construction . {In  Press.) 

Clark,  C.  H.  Marine  Gas  Engines . *. . i2mo,  *1  50 

Clark,  D.  K.  Rules,  Tables  and  Data  for  Mechanical  Engineers . 8vo,  5  00 

- Fuel:  Its  Combustion  and  Economy. . i2mo,  1  50 

- The  Mechanical  Engineer’s  Pocketbook . i6mo,  2  00 

- Tramways:  Their  Construction  and  Working . 8vo,  7  50 

Clark,  J.  M.  New  System  of  Laying  Out  Railway  Turnouts . 12010,  1  00 

Clausen-Thue,  W.  ABC  Telegraphic  Code.  Fourth  Edition . i2mo,  *5  00 

Fifth  Edition . 8vo,  *7  00 

- The  A  1  Telegraphic  Code . 8vo,  *7  50 

Cleemann,  T.  M.  The  Railroad  Engineer’s  Practice . i2mo,  *1  50 

Clerk,  D.,  and  Idell,  F.  E.  Theory  of  the  Gas  Engine.  (Science  Series 

No.  62.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Clevenger,  S.  R.  Treatise  on  the  Method  of  Government  Surveying. 

i6mo,  morocco .  2  50 

Clouth,  F.  Rubber,  Gutta-Percha,  and  Balata . 8vo,  *5  00 


D  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  7 


Coffin,  J.  H.  C.  Navigation  and  Nautical  Astronomy . nmo,  *3  50 

Colburn,  Z.,  and  Thurston,  R.  H.  Steam  Boiler  Explosions.  (Science 

Series  No.  2.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Cole,  R.  S.  Treatise  on  Photographic  Optics . i2mo,  1  50 

Coles-Finch,  W.  Water,  Its  Origin  and  Use . 8vo,  *5  00 

Collins,  J.  E.  Useful  Alloys  and  Memoranda  for  Goldsmiths,  Jewelers. 

i6mo .  0  5° 

Constantine,  E.  Marine  Engineers,  Their  Qualifications  and  Duties. 

8vo,  *2  00 

Coombs,  H.  A.  Gear  Teeth.  (Science  Series  No.  120.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Cooper,  W.  R.  Primary  Batteries . 8vo,  *4  00 

- “  The  Electrician  ”  Primers. . .  ' . 8vo,  *5  00 

Part  I .  *1  50 

Part  II . .  *2  50 

Part  III . *2  00 

Copperthwaite,  W.  C.  Tunnel  Shields . 4to,  *9  00 

Corey,  H.  T.  Water  Supply  Engineering . 8vo  (In  Press.) 

Corfield,  W.  H.  Dwelling  Houses.  (Science  Series  No.  50.) . i6mo,  o  50 

- Water  and  Water-Supply.  (Science  Series  No.  17.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Cornwall,  H.  B.  Manual  of  Blow-pipe  Analysis . 8vo,  *2  50 

Courtney,  C.  F.  Masonry  Dams . 8vo,  3  50 

Cowell,  W.  B.  Pure  Air,  Ozone,  and  Water . nmo,  *2  00 

Craig,  T.  Motion  of  a  Solid  in  a  Fuel.  (Science  Series  No.  49.) - i6mo,  o  50 

- Wave  and  Vortex  Motion.  (Science  Series  No.  43.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Cramp,  W.  Continuous  Current  Machine  Design . 8vo,  *2  50 

Crocker,  F.  B.  Electric  Lighting.  Two  Volumes.  8vo. 

Vol.  I.  The  Generating  Plant .  3  00 

Vol.  II.  Distributing  Systems  and  Lamps .  3  00 

Crocker,  F.  B.,  and  Arendt,  M.  Electric  Motors*. . 8vo,  *2  50 

Crocker,  F.  B.,  and  Wheeler,  S.  S.  The  Management  of  Electrical  Ma¬ 
chinery . nmo,  *1  00 

Cross,  C.  F.,  Bevan,  E.  J.,  and  Sindall,  R.  W.  Wood  Pulp  and  Its  Applica¬ 
tions.  (Westminster  Series.) . 8vo,  *2  00 

Crosskey,  L.  R.  Elementary  Perspective . 8vo,  1  00 

Crosskey,  L.  R.,  and  Thaw,  J.  Advanced  Perspective . 8vo,  1  50 

Culley,  J.  L.  Theory  of  Arches.  (Science  Series  No.  87.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Davenport,  C.  The  Book.  (Westminster  Series.)  . 8vo,  *2  00 

Davies,  D.  C.  Metalliferous  Minerals  and  Mining . 8vo,  5  00 

- Earthy  Minerals  and  Mining . 8vo,  5  00 

Davies,  E.  H.  Machinery  for  Metalliferous  Mines . 8vo,  800 

Davies,  F.  H.  Electric  Power  and  Traction . 8vo,  *2  00 

Dawson,  P.  Electric  Traction  on  Railways . 8vo,  *9  00 

Day,  C.  The  Indicator  and  Its  Diagrams . nmo,  *2  00 

Deerr,  N.  Sugar  and  the  Sugar  Cane . 8vo,  *8  00 

Deite,  C.  Manual  of  Soapmaking.  Trans,  by  S.  T.  King . 4to,  *5  00 

De  la  Coux,  H.  The  Industrial  Uses  of  Wnter.  Trans,  by  A.  Morris. 8vo,  *4  50 

Del  Mar,  W.  A.  Electric  Power  Conductors . 8vo,  *2  00 

Denny,  G.  A.  Deep-level  Mines  of  the  Rand . 4to,  *10  00 

- Diamond  Drilling  for  Gold .  *5  00 

De  Roos,  J.  D.  C.  Linkages.  (Science  Series  No.  47.). . i6mo,  o  50 


8  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 


Derr,  W.  L.  Block  Signal  Operation . Oblong  i2mo,  *i  50 

Desaint,  A.  Three  Hundred  Shades  and  How  to  Mix  Them . 8vo,  *10  00 

De  Varona,  A.  Sewer  Gases.  (Science  Series  No.  55.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Devey,  R.  G.  Mill  and  Factory  Wiring.  (Installation  Manuals  Series.) 

i2mo,  *1  00 

Dibdin,  W.  J.  Public  Lighting  by  Gas  and  Electricity . 8vo,  *8  00 

- Purification  of  Sewage  and  Water . 8vo,  6  50 

Dichmann,  Carl.  Basic  Open-Hearth  Steel  Process.  .  . . i2mo,  *3  50 

Dieterich,  K.  Analysis  of  Resins,  Balsams,  and  Gum  Resins . 8vo,  *300 

Dinger,  Lieut.  H.  C.  Care  and  Operation  of  Naval  Machinery . nmo,  *2  00 

Dixon,  D.  B.  Machinist’s  and  Steam  Engineer’s  Practical  Calculator. 

i6mo,  morocco,  1  25 

Doble,  W.  A.  Power  Plant  Construction  on  the  Pacific  Coast  (In  Press.) 


Dodd,  G.  Dictionary  of  Manufactures,  Mining,  Machinery,  and  the 

Industrial  Arts . i2mo,  1  50 

Dorr,  B.  F.  The  Surveyor’s  Guide  and  Pocket  Table-book. 

i6mo,  morocco,  2  00 

Down,  P.  B.  Handy  Copper  Wire  Table . i6mo,  *1  00 

Draper,  C.  H.  Elementary  Text-book  of  Light,  Heat  and  Sound. . .  i2mo,  1  00 

- Heat  and  the  Principles  of  Thermo-dynamics . i2mo,  1  50 

Duckwall,  E.  W.  Canning  and  Preserving  of  Food  Products . 8vo,  *5  00 


Dumesny,  P.,  and  Noyer,  J.  Wood  Products,  Distillates,  and  Extracts. 

8vo,  *4  50 

Duncan,  W.  G.,  and  Penman,  D.  The  Electrical  Equipment  of  Collieries. 


*  8vo,  *4  00 

Duthie,  A.  L.  Decorative  Glass  Processes.  (Westminster  Series.).  .8vo,  *2  00 

Dyson,  S.  S.  Practical  Testing  of  Raw  Materials . 8vo,  *5  00 

Dyson,  S.  S.,  and  Clarkson,  S.  S.  Chemical  Works . (In  Press.) 

Eccles,  R.  G.,  and  Duckwall,  E.  W.  Food  Preservatives . 8vo,  paper  o  50 

Eddy,  H.  T.  Researches  in  Graphical  Statics . 8vo,  1  50 

- Maximum  Stresses  under  Concentrated  Loads . 8vo,  1  50 

Edgcumbe,  K.  Industrial  Electrical  Measuring  Instruments . 8vo,  *250 

Eissler,  M.  The  Metallurgy  of  Gold . 8vo  7  50 

- The  Hydrometallurgy  of  Copper . 8vo,  *4  50 

- The  Metallurgy  of  Silver . 8vo,  4  00 

- The  Metallurgy  of  Argentiferous  Lead . 8vo,  5  o d 

- Cyanide  Process  for  the  Extraction  of  Gold . 8vo,  3  00 

- A  Handbook  on  Modern  Explosives . 8vo,  5  00 

Ekin,  T.  C.  Water  Pipe  and  Sewage  Discharge  Diagrams . folio,  *3  00 

Eliot,  C.  W.,  and  Storer,  F.  H.  Compendious  Manual  of  Qualitative 

Chemical  Analysis . i2mo,  *1  25 

Elliot,  Major  G.  H.  European  Light-house  Systems . 8vo,  500 

Ennis,  Wm.  D.  Linseed  Oil  and  Other  Seed  Oils . 8vo,  *4  00 

- Applied  Thermodynamics . 8vo  *4  50 

- Flying  Machines  To-day . i2mo,  *1  50 

- Vapors  for  Heat  Engines . i2mo,  *1  00 

Erfurt,  J.  Dyeing  of  Paper  Pulp.  Trans,  by  J.  Hubner . 8vo,  *7  50 

Erskine-Murray,  J.  A  Handbook  of  Wireless  Telegraphy . 8vo,  *3  50 

Evans,  C.  A.  Macadamized  Roads . : . (/^  Press.) 

Ewing,  A.  J.  Magnetic  Induction  in  Iron . 8vo,  *4  00 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  9 


Fairie,  J.  Notes  on  Lead  Ores . i2mo, 

- Notes  on  Pottery  Clays . i2mo, 

Fairley,  W.,  and  Andre,  Geo.  J.  Ventilation  of  Coal  Mines. 

Series  No.  58.) . i6mo, 

Fairweather,  W.  C.  Foreign  and  Colonial  Patent  Laws . 8vo, 

Fanning,  J.  T.  Hydraulic  and  Water-supply  Engineering . 8vo, 

Fauth,  P.  The  Moon  in  Modern  Astronomy.  Trans,  by  J.  McCabe. 

8vo, 

Fay,  I.  W.  The  Coal-tar  Colors . 8vo, 

Fernbach,  R.  L.  Glue  and  Gelatine . 8vo, 


.  i2mo, 

*1 

00 

i2mo, 

Science 

*1 

50 

.  i6mo, 

0 

5o 

.  .  .  8vo, 

*3 

00 

. .  .  8vo, 

*5 

00 

2  00 


* 


4  00 
3  00 


25 

00 


- Chemical  Aspects  of  Silk  Manufacture . i2mo,  *1  00 

Fischer,  E.  The  Preparation  of  Organic  Compounds.  Trans,  by  R.  V. 

Stanford . . . i2mo, 

Fish,  J.  C.  L.  Lettering  of  Working  Drawings . Oblong  8vo, 

Fisher,  H.  K.  C.,  and  Darby,  W.  C.  Submarine  Cable  Testing . 8vo, 

Fiske,  Lieut.  B.  A.  Electricity  in  Theory  and  Practice . 8vo, 

Fleischmann,  W.  The  Book  of  the  Dairy.  Trans,  by  C.  M.  Aikman.  8vo, 
Fleming,  J.  A.  The  Alternate-current  Transformer.  Two  Volumes.  8vo. 

Vol.  I.  The  Induction  of  Electric  Currents . 

Vol.  II.  The  Utilization  of  Induced  Currents .  *5  00 

- Propagation  of  Electric  Currents . 8vo,  * 

- Centenary  of  the  Electrical  Current . 8vo, 

- Electric  Lamps  and  Electric  Lighting . 8vo,  * 

- Electrical  Laboratory  Notes  and  Forms . 4to, 

- A  Handbook  for  the  Electrical  Laboratory  and  Testing  Room.  Two 

Volumes . 8vo,  each, 

Fluery,  FI.  The  Calculus  Without  Limits  or  Infinitesimals.  Trans,  by 

C.  0.  Mailloux . (In  P~ress.) 

Flynn,  P.  J.  Flow  of  Water.  (Science  Series  No.  84.) . i6mo, 

- Hydraulic  Tables.  (Science  Series  No.  66.) . i6mo, 

Foley,  N.  British  and  American  Customary  and  Metric  Measures,  folio, 

Foster,  H.  A.  Electrical  Engineers’  Pocket-book.  ( Sixth  Edition.) 

i2mo,  leather, 

- Engineering  Valuations  of  Public  Utilities . 8vo  (In  Press.) 

Foster,  Gen.  J.  G.  Submarine  Blasting  in  Boston  (Mass.)  Harbor.. .  4to, 

Fowle,  F.  F.  Overhead  Transmission  Line  Crossings . i2mo, 

- The  Solution  of  Alternating  Current  Problems . 8vo  (In  Press.) 

Fox,  W.  G.  Transition  Curves.  (Science  Series  No.  no.) . i6mo, 

Fox,  W.,  and  Thomas,  C.  W.  Practical  Course  in  Mechanical  Draw¬ 
ing . i2mo, 

Foye,  J.  C.  Chemical  Problems.  (Science  Series  No.  69.) . i6mo, 

- Handbook  of  Mineralogy.  (Science  Series  No.  86.) . i6mo, 

Francis,  J.  B.  Lowell  Hydraulic  Experiments . 4to, 

Freudemacher,  P.  W.  Electrical  Mining  Installations.  (Installation 

Manuals  Series  ) . i2mo, 

Fritsch,  J.  Manufacture  of  Chemical  Manures.  Trans,  by  D.  Grant. 

8vo, 

Frye,  A.  I.  Civil  Engineers’  Pocket-book . i2mo,  leather, 

Frye,  A.  I.  Civil  Engineers’  Pocket-book . (In  Press.) 

Fuller,  G.  W.  Investigations  into  the  Purification  of  the  Ohio  River  .  4to,  * 
Furnell,  J.  Paints,  Colors,  Oils,  and  Varnishes . 8vo,  *i  00 


*3  50 
2  50 
4  00 


*5  00 


3  00 
*0  50 
3  00 
*5  00 


*5  00 


0  50 
o  50 
*3  00 


5  00 


3  50 
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o  50 

1  25 
o  50 
O  50 
15  00 

*1  00 

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10  00 


10  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 


Gant,  L.  W.  Elements  of  Electric  Traction . 8vo,  *2  50 

Garforth,  W.  E.  Rules  for  Recovering  Coal  Mines  after  Explosions  and 

Fires . i2mo,  leather,  1  50 

Gaudard,  J.  Foundations.  (Science  Series  No.  34.) . i6mo,  0  50 

Gear,  H.  B.,  and  Williams,  P.  F.  Electric  Central  Station  Distribution 

Systems . 8vo,  *3  00 

Geerligs,  H.  C.  P.  Cane  Sugar  and  Its  Manufacture . 8vo,  *5  00 

Geikie,  J.  Structural  and  Field  Geology . 8vo,  *400 

Gerber,  N.  Analysis  of  Milk,  Condensed  Milk,  and  Infants’ Milk-Food.  8vo,  1  25 

Gerhard,  W.  P.  Sanitation,  Watersupply  and  Sewage  Disposal  of  Country 

Houses . i2mo,  *2  00 

• - Gas  Lighting.  (Science  Series  No.  hi.) . i6mo,  o  50 

- - Household  Wastes.  (Science  Series  No.  97.) . i6mo,  0  50 

- House  Drainage.  (Science  Series  No.  63.) . i6mo,  o  50 

- Sanitary  Drainage  of  Buildings.  (Science  Series  No.  93.). . .  .  i6mo,  o  50 

Gerhardi,  C.  W.  H.  Electricity  Meters . 8vo,  *4  00 

Geschwind,  L.  Manufacture  of  Alum  and  Sulphates.  Trans,  by  C. 

Salter . 8vo,  *5  00 

Gibbs,  W.  E.  Lighting  by  Acetylene . i2mo,  *1  50 

- Physics  of  Solids  and  Fluids.  (Carnegie  Technical  School’s  Text¬ 
books.) . , . .  . . . .  *  j  cjq 

Gibson,  A.  H.  Hydraulics  and  Its  Application.  . . . 8vo,  *5  00 

- Water  Hammer  in  Hydraulic  Pipe  Lines . . i2mo,  *2  00 

Gilbreth,  F.  B.  Motion  Study . i2mo,  *2  00 

- Primer  of  Scientific  Management . (In  Preparation.) 

Gillmore,  Gen.  Q.  A.  Limes,  Hydraulic  Cements  ard  Mortars . 8vo,  4  00 

- Roads,  Streets,  and  Pavements . i2mo,  2  00 

Golding,  H.  A.  The  Theta-Phi  Diagram . i2mo,  *1  25 

Goldschmidt,  R.  Alternating  Current  Commutator  Motor . 8vo,  *3  00 

Goodchild,  W.  Precious  Stones.  (Westminster  Series.) . 8vo,  *2  00 

Goodeve,  T.  M.  Textbook  on  the  Steam-engine . i2mo,  2  00 

Gore,  G.  Electrolytic  Separation  of  Metals . 8vo,  *3  50 

Gould,  E.  S.  Arithmetic  of  the  Steam-engine . i2mo,  1  00 

■ - Calculus.  (Science  Series  No.  1 1 2.) . i6mo,  0  50 

- High  Masonry  Dams.  (Science  Series  No.  22.) . i6mo,  o  50 

- - Practical  Hydrostatics  and  Hydrostatic  Formulas.  (Science  Series 

No.  117.) . i6mo,  0  50 

Grant,  J.  Brewing  and  Distilling.  (Westminster  Series.)  8vo  (In  Press.) 

Gratacap,  L.  P.  A  Popular  Guide  to  Minerals . 8vo  (In  Press.) 

Gray,  J.  Electrical  Influence  Machines . i2mo,  2  00 

Greenwood,  E.  Classified  Guide  to  Technical  and  Commercial  Books.  8vo,  *3  00 

Gregorius,  R.  Mineral  Waxes.  Trans,  by  C.  Salter . i2mo,  *3  00 

Griffiths,  A.  B.  A  Treatise  on  Manures . nmo,  3  00 

- Dental  Metallurgy . 8vo,  *3  50 

Gross,  E.  Hops . . . \ . 8vo,  *450 

Grossman,  J.  Ammonia  and  Its  Compounds . .• . nmo,  *1  25 

Groth,  L.  A.  Welding  and  Cutting  Metals  by  Gases  or  Electricity.  .  .  .8vo,  *3  00 

Grover,  F.  Modern  Gas  and  Oil  Engines . 8vo,  *2  00 

Gruner,  A.  Power-loom  Weaving . 8vo,  *3  00 


Guldner,  Hugo.  Internal  Combustion  Engines.  Trans,  by  H.  Diederichs. 

4to,  *10  00 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  11 


Gunther,  C.  0.  Integration . . . i2mo, 

Gurden,  R.  L.  Traverse  Tables . . . folio,  half  morocco, 

Guy,  A.  E.  Experiments  on  the  Flexure  of  Beams . 8vo, 

Haeder,  H.  Handbook  on  the  Steam-engine.  Trans,  by  H.  H.  P. 

Powles . _ . i2mo, 

Hainbach,  R.  Pottery  Decoration.  Trans,  by  C.  Slater . i2mo, 

Haenig,  A.  Emery  and  Emery  Industry . 8vo, 

Hale,  W.  J.  Calculations  of  General  Chemistry . i2mo, 

Hall,  C.  H.  Chemistry  of  Paints  and  Paint  Vehicles . i2mo, 

Hall,  R.  H.  Governors  and  Governing  Mechanism . i2mo, 

Hall,  W.  S.  Elements  of  the  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus . 8vo, 

• - Descriptive  Geometry . 8vo  volume  and  a  4to  atlas, 

Haller,  G.  F.,  and  Cunningham,  E.  T.  The  Tesla  Coil . i2mo, 

Halsey,  F.  A.  Slide  Valve  Gears . i2mo, 

- The  Use  of  the  Slide  Rule.  (Science  Series  No.  114.) . i6mo, 

- - Worm  and  Spiral  Gearing.  (Science  Series  No.  116.) . i6mo, 

Hamilton,  W.  G.  Useful  Information  for  Railway  Men . i6mo, 

Hammer,  W.  J.  Radium  and  Other  Radio-active  Substances . 8vo, 

Hancock,  H.  Textbook  of  Mechanics  and  Hydrostatics . 8vo, 

Hardy,  E.  Elementary  Principles'  of  Graphic  Statics . . i2mo, 

Harrison,  W.  B.  The  Mechanics’  Tool-book . nmo, 

Hart,  J.  W.  External  Plumbing  Work . 8vo, 

- Hints  to  Plumbers  on  Joint  Wiping . 8vo, 

- Principles  of  Hot  Water  Supply . 8vo, 

- Sanitary  Plumbing  and  Drainage .  8vo, 

Haskins,  C.  H.  The  Galvanometer  and  Its  Uses . i6mo, 

Hatt,  J.  A.  H.  The  Colorist . square  nmo, 

Hausbrand,  E.  Drying  by  Means  of  Air  and  Steam.  Trans,  by  A.  C. 

Wright . i2mo, 

- Evaporating,  Condensing  and  Cooling  Apparatus.  Trans,  by  A.  C. 

Wright . 8  vo, 

Hausner,  A.  Manufacture  of  Preserved  Foods  and  Sweetmeats.  Trans. 

by  A.  Morris  and  H.  Robson . 8vo, 

Hawke,  W.  H.  Premier  Cipher  Telegraphic  Code . 4to, 

-  100,000  Words  Supplement  to  the  Premier  Code . 4to, 

Hawkesworth,  J.  Graphical  Handbook  for  Reinforced  Concrete  Design. 

4to, 

Hay,  A.  Alternating  Currents . 8vo, 

- Electrical  Distributing  Networks  and  Distributing  Lines . 8vo, 

- Continuous  Current  Engineering . 8vo, 

Heap,  Major  D.  P.  Electrical  Appliances . 8vo, 

Heaviside,  0.  Electromagnetic  Theory.  Two  Volumes . 8vo,  each, 

Heck,  R.  C.  H.  The  Steam  Engine  and  Turbine . 8vo, 

- Steam-Engine  and  Other  Steam  Motors.  Two  Volumes. 

Vol.  I.  Thermodynamics  and  the  Mechanics . 8vo, 

Vol.  II.  Form,  Construction,  and  Working . 8vo, 

- Notes  on  Elementary  Kinematics . 8 vo,  boards, 

- Graphics  of  Machine  Forces . 8vo,  boards, 

Hedges,  K.  Modern  Lightning  Conductors . 8vo, 

Heermann,  P.  Dyers’  Materials.  Trans,  by  A.  C.  Wright . i2mo, 


*1  25 
*7  5o 
*1  25 


3  00 
*3  00 

*1  00 
*2  00 
*2  00 
*2  25 
*3  50 
*1  25 
1  50 
o  50 
o  50 
1  00 
*1  00 
1  50 
*1  5o. 

1  50 
*3  00 
*3  00 
*3  00 
*3  00 

1  50 
*1  50 

*2  00 

*5  00 

*3  00 
*5  00 
*5  00 

*2  50 
*2  50 
*3  50 
*2  50 

2  00 
*5  00 
*5  00 

*3  50 
*5  00 
*1  00 
*1  00 

3  00 
*2  50 


12  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 


* 

Hellot,  Macquer  and  D’Apligny.  Art  of  Dyeing  Wool,  Silk  and  Cotton. 

8vo,  *2  oo 

Henrici,  0.  Skeleton  Structures . ' . 8vo,  i  50 

Hering,  D.  W.  Physics  for  College  Students . (In  Preparation.) 

Hering-Shaw,  A.  Domestic  Sanitation  and  Plumbing.  Two  Vols. .  .8vo,  *5  00 

- Elementary  Science . 8vo,  *2  00 

Herrmann,  G.  The  Graphical  Statics  of  Mechanism.  Trans,  by  A.  P. 

Smith . i2mo,  2  00 

Herzfeld,  J.  Testing  of  Yarns  and  Textile  Fabrics . 8vo,  *3  50 

Hildebrandt,  A.  Airships,  Past  and  Present . 8vo,  *3  50 

Hildenbrand,  B.  W.  Cable-Making.  (Science  Series  No.  32.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Hilditch,  T.  P.  A  Concise  History  of  Chemistry . i2mo,  *1  25 

Hill,  J.  W.  The  Purification  of  Public  Water  Supplies.  New  Edition. 

(In  Press.) 

• - Interpretation  of  Water  Analysis . (In  Press.) 

Hiroi,  I.  Plate  Girder  Construction.  (Science  Series  No.  95.) . i6mo,  o  50 

- Statically-Indeterminate  Stresses . nmo,  *2  00 

Hirshfeld,  C.  F.  Engineering  Thermodynamics.  (Science  Series  No.  45.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Hobart,  H.  M.  Heavy  Electrical  Engineering . 8vo,  *4  50 

- - Design  of  Static  Transformers . i2mo,  *2  00 

- Electricity . 8vo,  *2  00 

- Electric  Trains . 8vo,  *2  50 

- Electric  Propulsion  of  Ships . 8vo,  *2  00 

Hobbs,  W.  R.  P.  The  Arithmetic  of  Electrical  Measurements . nmo,  o  50 

Hoff,  J.  N.  Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulas . i2ino,  *1  50 

Hoff,  Com.  W.  B.  The  Avoidance  of  Collisions  at  Sea.  .  .  i6mo,  morocco,  o  75 

Hole,  W.  The  Distribution  of  Gas . 8vo,  *7  50 

Holley,  A.  L.  Railway  Practice . folio,  12  00 

Holmes,  A.  B.  The  Electric  Light  Popularly  Explained  ....  nmo,  paper,  "o  50 

Hopkins,  N.  M.  Experimental  Electrochemistry . 8vo,  *3  00 

- Model  Engines  and  Small  Boats . nmo,  1  25 

Hopkinson,  J.  Shoolbred,  J.  N.,  and  Day,  R.  E.  Dynamic  Electricity. 

(Science  Series  No.  71.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Horner,  J.  Engineers’  Turning . 8vo,  *3  50 

- Metal  Turning . nmo,  1  50 

- Toothed  Gearing . nmo,  2  25 

Houghton,  C.  E.  The  Elements  of  Mechanics  of  Materials . nmo,  *200 

Houllevigue,  L.  The  Evolution  of  the  Sciences . 8vo,  *2  00 

Howe,  G.  Mathematics  for  the  Practical  Man . nmo,  *1  25 

Howorth,  J.  Repairing  and  Riveting  Glass,  China  and  Earthenware. 

8vo,  paper,  *0  50 

Hubbard,  E.  The  Utilization  of  Wood- waste . 8vo,  *2  50 

Humper,  W.  Calculation  of  Strains  in  Girders . nmo,  2  50 

Humphreys,  A.  C.  The  Business  Features  of  Engineering  Practice .  8vo,  *1  25 

Hurst,  G.  H.  Handbook  of  the  Theory  of  Color . 8vo,  *2  50 

- Dictionary  of  Chemicals  and  Raw  Products . 8vo,  *3  00 

- Lubricating  Oils,  Fats  and  Greases . 8vo,  *4  00 

- Soaps . 8 vo,  *5  00 

- Textile  Soaps  and  Oils . 8vo,  *2  50 

Hurst,  H.  E.,  and  Lattey,  R.  T.  Text-book  of  Physics . 8vo,  *3  00 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  13 


Hutchinson  R.  W.,  Jr.  Long  Distance  Electric  Power  Transmission  i2mo,  *3  00 
Hutchinson,  R.  W.,  Jr.,  and  Ihlseng,  M.  C.  Electricity  in  Mining  .  i2mo, 

(In  Press ) 

Hutchinson,  W.  B.  Patents  and  How  to  Make  Money  Out  of  Them.  i2mo,  1  25 


Hutton,  W.  S.  Steam-boiler  Construction . 8vo,  600 

- Practical  Engineer’s  Handbook . 8vo,  7  00 

- The  Works’  Manager’s  Handbook . 8vo,  6  00 

Hyde,  E.  W.  Skew  Arches.  (Science  Series  No.  15.) . i6mo,  050 


Induction  Coils.  (Science  Series  No.  53.) . i6mo, 

Ingle,  H.  Manual  of  Agricultural  Chemistry . 8vo, 

Innes,  C.  H.  Problems  in  Machine  Design . i2mo, 

- Air  Compressors  and  Blowing  Engines . i2mo,- 

- Centrifugal  Pumps . i2mo, 

- - The  Fan . i2mo> 

Isherwood,  B.  F.  Engineering  Precedents  for  Steam  Machinery . 8vo, 

Ivatts,  E.  B.  Railway  Management  at  Stations . 8vo, 


Jacob,  A.,  and  Gould,  E.  S.  On  the  Designing  and  Construction  of 

Storage  Reservoirs.  (Science  Series  No.  6.) . i6mo, 

Jamieson,  A.  Text  Book  on  Steam  and  Steam  Engines . 8vo, 

- Elementary  Manual  on  Steam  and  the  Steam  Engine . i2mo, 

Jannettaz,  E.  Guide  to  the  Determination  of  Rocks.  Trans,  by  G.  W. 

Plympton . i2mo, 

Jehl,  F.  Manufacture  of  Carbons . 8vo, 

Jennings,  A.  S.  Commercial  Paints  and  Painting.  (Westminster  Series.) 

8 vo  (In  Press.) 

Jennison,  F.  H.  The  Manufacture  of  Lake  Pigments . 8vo, 

Jepson,  G.  Cams  and  the  Principles  of  their  Construction . 8vo, 

- Mechanical  Drawing . 8vo  (In  Preparation.) 

Jockin,  W.  Arithmetic  of  the  Gold  and  Silversmith . i2mo, 

Johnson,  G.  L.  Photographic  Optics  and  Color  Photography . 8vo, 

Johnson,  J.  H.  Arc  Lamps  and  Accessory  Apparatus.  (Installation 

Manuals  Series.) . i2mo, 

Johnson,  T.  M.  Ship  Wiring  and  Fitting.  (Installation  Manuals  Series.) 

(In  Press.) 

Johnson,  W.  H.  The  Cultivation  and  Preparation  of  Para  Rubber. .  .8vo, 

Johnson,  W.  McA.  The  Metallurgy  of  Nickel . (In  Preparation.) 

Johnston,  J.  F.  W.,  and  Cameron,  C.  Elements  of  Agricultural  Chemistry 

and  Geology . i2mo, 

Joly,  J.  Raidoactivity  and  Geology . i2mo, 

Jones,  H.  C.  Electrical  Nature  of  Matter  and  Radioactivity . i2mo, 

Jones,  M.  W.  Testing  Raw  Materials  Used  in  Paint . i2mo, 

Jones,  L.,  and  Scard,  F.  I.  Manufacture  of  Cane  Sugar . 8vo, 

Joynson,  F.  H.  Designing  and  Construction  of  Machine  Gearing. . .  .8vo, 
Jiiptner,  H.  F.  V.  Siderology:  The  Science  of  Iron . 8vo, 


o  50 
*3  00 
*2  00 
*2  00 
*2  00 
*2  00 
2  50 
*2  50 


0  50 
3  00 
1  50 

1  50 
*4  00 


*3  00 
*1  50 

*1  00 
*3  00 

*0  75 
*3  00 


2  60 
*3  00 
*2  00 
*2  00 
*5  00 
2  00 
*5  oo> 


Kansas  City  Bridge . . . 4to,  6  00 

Kapp,  G.  Alternate  Current  Machinery.  (Science  Series  No.  96.) .  i6mo,  050 

- Electric  Transmission  of  Energy . i2mo,  3  50 

Keim,  A.  W.  Prevention  of  Dampness  in  Buildings . 8vo,  *200 


14  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 


Keller,  S.  S.  Mathematics  for  Engineering  Students.  i2mo,  half  leather. 

Algebra  and  Trigonometry,  with  a  Chapter  on  Vectors .  *i  75 

Special  Algebra  Edition .  *1  00 

Plane  and  Solid  Geometry .  *1  25 

Analytical  Geometry  and  Calculus .  *2  00 

Kelsey,  W.  R.  Continuous-current  Dynamos  and  Motors . 8vo,  *2  50 

Kemble,  W.  T.,  and  Underhill,  C.  R.  The  Periodic  Law  and  the  Hydrogen 

Spectrum . 8vo,  paper,  *0  50 

Kemp,  J.  F.  Handbook  of  Rocks . .  .8vo,  *1  50 

Kendall,  E.  Twelve  Figure  Cipher  Code . 4to,  *15  00 

Kennedy,  A.  B.  W.,  and  Thurston,  R.  H.  Kinematics  of  Machinery. 

(Science  Series  No.  54.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Kennedy,  A.  B.  W.,  Unwin,  W.  C.,  and  Idell,  F.  E.  Compressed  Air. 

(Science  Series  No.  106.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Kennedy,  R.  Modern  Engines  and  Power  Generators.  Six  Volumes.  4to,  15  00 

Single  Volumes . each,  3  00 

- Electrical  Installations.  Five  Volumes . 4to,  15  00 

Single  Volumes . each,  3  50 

- Flying  Machines;  Practice  and  Design . i2mo,  *2  00 

- Principles  of  Aeroplane  Construction . 8vo,  *1  50 

Kennelly,  A.  E.  Electro-dynamic  Machinery . 8vo,  1  50 

Kent,  W.  Strength  of  Materials.  (Science  Series  No.  41.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Kershaw,  J.  B.  C.  Fuel,  Water  and  Gas  Analysis . 8vo,  *2  50 

- Electrometallurgy.  (Westminster  Series.) . 8vo,  *2  00 

- The  Electric  Furnace  in  Iron  and  Steel  Production . i2mo,  *1  50 

Kinzbrunner,  C.  Alternate  Current  Windings . 8vo,  *1  50 

- Continuous  Current  Armatures . 8vo,  *1  50 

- Testing  of  Alternating  Current  Machines . 8vo,  *2  00 

Kirkaldy,  W.  G.  David  Kirkaldy’s  System  of  Mechanical  Testing. . .  -4to,  10  00 

Kirkbride,  J.  Engraving  for  Illustration . 8vo,  *1  50 

Kirkwood,  J.  P.  Filtration  of  River  Waters . 4to,  7  50 

Klein,  J.  F.  Design  of  a  High-speed  Steam-engine . 8vo,  *5  00 

- Physical  Significance  of  Entropy . 8vo,  *1  50 

Kleinhans,  F.  B.  Boiler  Construction . 8vo,  3  00 

Knight,  R.-Adm.  A.  M.  Modern  Seamanship . 8vo,  *7  50 

Half  morocco .  *9  00 

Knox,  W.  F.  Logarithm  Tables . (In  Preparation.) 

Knott,  C.  G.,  and  Mackay,  J.  S.  Practical  Mathematics . 8vo,  2  00 

Koester,  F.  Steam-Electric  Power  Plants . 4to,  *5  00 

- Hydroelectric  Developments  and  Engineering . 4to,  *5  00 

Koller,  T.  The  Utilization  of  Waste  Products . 8vo,  *3  50 

- Cosmetics . 8vo,  *2  50 

Kretchmar,  K.  Yarn  and  Warp  Sizing . 8vo,  *4  00 

Lambert,  T.  Lead  and  its  Compounds . 8vo,  *3  50 

- Bone  Products  and  Manures . 8vo,  *3  00 

Lamborn,  L.  L.  Cottonseed  Products . 8vo,  *3  00 

- Modern  Soaps,  Candles,  and  Glycerin . 8vo,  *7  50 

Lamprecht,  R.  Recovery  Work  After  Pit  Fires.  Trans,  by  C.  Salter . .  8vo,  *4  00 

Lanchester,  F.  W.  Aerial  Flight.  Two  Volumes.  8vo. 

Vol.  I.  Aerodynamics .  *6  00 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  15 

Lanchester,  F.  W.  Aerial  Flight.  Vol.  II.  Aerodonetics .  *6  oo 

Lamer,  E.  T.  Principles  of  Alternating  Currents . i2mo,  *125 

Larrabee,  C.  S.  Cipher  and  Secret  Letter  and  Telegraphic  Code - i6mo,  060 

La  Rue,  B.  F.  Swing  Bridges.  (Science  Series  No.  107.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Lassar-Cohn,  Dr.  Modern  Scientific  Chemistry.  Trans,  by  M.  M.  Patti- 

son  Muir . i2mo,  *200 

Latimer,  L.  H.,  Field,  C.  J.,  and  Howell,  J.  W.  Incandescent  Electric 

Lighting.  (Science  Series  No.  57.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Latta,  M.  N.  Handbook  of  American  Gas-Engineering  Practice . 8vo,  *4  50 

- American  Producer  Gas  Practice . 4t°>  *6  00 

Leask,  A.  R.  Breakdowns  at  Sea . i2mo,  2  00 

- Refrigerating  Machinery . i2mo,  2  00 

Lecky,  S.  T.  S.  “  Wrinkles  ”  in  Practical  Navigation . 8vo,  *8  00 

Le  Doux,  M.  Ice-Making  Machines.  (Science  Series  No.  46.) - i6mo,  o  50 

Leeds,  C.  C.  Mechanical  Drawing  foi  Trade  Schools . oblong  4to, 

High  School  Edition .  *1  25 

Machinery  Trades  Edition .  *2  00 

Letevre,  L.  Architectural  Pottery.  Trans,  by  H.  K.  Bird  and  W.  M. 

Binns . 4to,  *7  5© 

Lehner,  S.  Ink  Manufacture.  Trans,  by  A.  Morris  and  H.  Robson  ..  8vo,  *250 

Lemstrom,  S.  Electricity  in  Agriculture  and  Horticulture . 8vo,  *1  50 

Le  Van,  W.  B.  Steam-Engine  Indicator.  (Science  Series  No.  78.) .  i6mo,  o  50 

Lewes,  V.  B.  Liquid  and  Gaseous  Fuels.  (Westminster  Series.) ...  .8vo,  *200 

Lewis,  L.  P.  Railway  Signal  Engineering . 8vo  {In  Press.) 

Lieber,  B.  F.  Lieber’s  Standard  Telegraphic  Code . 8vo,  *10  00 

- Code.  German  Edition . 8vo,  *10  00 

- Spanish  Edition . 8vo,  *10  00 

- French  Edition . 8vo,  *10  00 

- Terminal  Index . 8vo,  *2  50 

- Lieber’s  Appendix . folio,  *15  00 

- - - Handy  Tables . 4to,  *2  50 

- Bankers  and  Stockbrokers’  Code  and  Merchants  and  Shippers’  Blank 

Tables . 8vo,  *15  00 

- 100,000,000  Combination  Code . 8vo,  *10  00 

- Engineering  Code . 8vo,  *12  50 

Livermore,  V.  P.,  and  Williams,  J.  How  to  Become  a  Competent  Moor¬ 
man . 1 2mo,  *1  00 

Livingstone,  R.  Design  and  Construction  of  Commutators . 8vo,  *2  25 

Lobben,  P.  Machinists’  and  Draftsmen’s  Handbook . 8vo,  2  50 

Locke,  A.  G.  and  C.  G.  Manufacture  of  Sulphuric  Acid . 8vo,  10  00 

Lockwood,  T.  D.  Electricity,  Magnetism,  and  Electro-telegraph - 8vo,  2  50 

- Electrical  Measurement  and  the  Galvanometer . i2mo,  1  50 

Lodge,  O.  J.  Elementary  Mechanics . i2mo,  1  50 

- Signalling  Across  Space  without  Wires . 8vo,  *2  00 

Lord,  R.  T.  Decorative  and  Fancy  Fabrics . 8vo,  *3  50 

Loring,  A.  E.  A  Handbook  of  the  Electromagnetic  Telegraph . i6mo,  o  50 

- - Handbook.  (Science  Series  No.  39.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Loewenstein,  L.  C.,  and  Crissey,  C.  P.  Centrifugal  Pumps .  *4  5» 

Lucke,  C.  E.  Gas  Engine  Design . 8vo,  *300 

- Power  Plants:  their  Design,  Efficiency,  and  Power  Costs.  2  vols. 

{In  Preparation.) 


16  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 


Lunge,  G.  Coal-tar  and  Ammonia.  Two  Volumes . 8vo, 

- Manufacture  of  Sulphuric  Acid  and  Alkali.  Four  Volumes . 8vo, 

Vol.  I.  Sulphuric  Acid.  In  two  parts . . 

Vol.  II.  Salt  Cake,  Hydrochloric  Acid  and  Leblanc  Soda.  In  two 


parts . 

Vol.  III.  Ammonia  Soda . 

Vol.  IV.  Electrolytic  Methods . (/n  Press.) 

■ - Technical  Chemists’  Handbook . 12010,  leather, 

- Technical  Methods  of  Chemical  Analysis.  Trans,  by  C.  A.  Keane. 

in  collaboration  with  the  corps  of  specialists. 

Vol.  I.  In  two  parts . 8vo, 

Vol.  II.  In  two  parts . 8vo, 

Vol.  HI . (/n  Preparation.) 

Lupton,  A.,  Parr,  G.  D.  A.,  and  Perkin,  H.  Electricity  as  Applied  to 

Mining . 8vo, 

Luquer,  L.  M.  Minerals  in  Rock  Sections . 8vo, 


Macewen,  H.  A.  Food  Inspection . . . 8vo, 

Mackenzie,  N.  F.  Notes  on  Irrigation  Works . 8vo, 

Mackie,  J.  How  to  Make  a  Woolen  Mill  Pay . 8vo, 

Mackrow,  C.  Naval  Architect’s  and  Shipbuilder’s  Pocket-book. 

i6mo,  leather, 

Maguire,  Wm.  R.  Domestic  Sanitary  Drainage  and  Plumbing . 8vo, 

Mallet,  A.  Compound  Engines.  Trans,  by  R.  R.  Buel.  (Science  Series 

10.) . i6mo, 

Mansfield,  A.  N.  Electro-magnets.  (Science  Series  No.  64.) . i6mo, 

Marks,  E.  C.  R.  Construction  of  Cranes  and  Lifting  Machinery.  .  .  .  nmo, 

- Construction  and  Working  of  Pumps . i2mo, 

- Manufacture  of  Iron  and  Steel  Tubes . ' . nmo, 

- Mechanical  Engineering  Materials . nmo, 

Marks,  G.  C.  Hydraulic  Power  Engineering . 8vo, 

- Inventions,  Patents  and  Designs . nmo, 

Marlow,  T.  G.  Drying  Machinery  and  Practice . 8vo, 

Marsh,  C.  F.  Concise  Treatise  on  Reinforced  Concrete . 8vo, 

Marsh,  C.  F.,  and  Dunn,  W.  Reinforced  Concrete . 4to, 

Marsh,  C.  F.,  and  Dunn,  W.  Manual  of  Reinforced  Concrete  and  Con¬ 
crete  Block  Construction . i6mo,  morocco, 

Marshall,  W.  J.,  and  Sankey,  H.  R.  Gas  Engines.  (Westminster  Series.) 

8vo, 

Martin.  G,  Triumphs  and  Wonders  of  Modern  Chemistry . 8vo, 

Massie,  W.  W.,  and  Underhill,  C.  R.  Wireless  Telegraphy  and  Telephony. 

i2mo, 

Matheson,  D.  Australian  Saw-Miller’s  Log  and  Timber  Ready  Reckoner. 


i2mo,  leather, 


Mathot,  R.  E.  Internal  Combustion  Engines . 8vo, 

Maurice,  W.  Electric  Blasting  Apparatus  and  Explosives . 8vo, 

- Shot  Firer’s  Guide . 8vo, 

Maxwell,  J.  C.  Matter  and  Motion.  (Science  Series  No.  36.) . i6mo, 

Maxwell,  W.  H.,  and  Brown,  J.  T.  Encyclopedia  of  Municipal  and  Sani¬ 
tary  Engineering. . 4t0, 

Mayer,  A.  M.  Lecture  Notes  on  Physics . 8vo, 


*15  00 

*15  00 

*15  00 
*10  00 

*3  50 


*15  00 
*18  00 


*4  50 

*1  50 

*2  50 
*2  50 
*2  00 

5  00 
4  00 


o  50 
*1  5o 
*1  50 

*2  00 

*1  OD 

3  50 
*1  00 
*5  00 
*2  50 
*5  00 

*2  50 

y 

*2  00 
*2  00 

*1 00 

1 50 
*6  00 
*3  50 
*1  50 
o  50 

10  00 
2  00 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  17 


McCullough,  R.  S.  Mechanical  Theory  of  Heat . 8vo, 

McIntosh,  J.  G.  Technology  of  Sugar . 8vo, 

- Industrial  Alcohol . 8vo, 

- Manufacture  of  Varnishes  and  Kindred  Industries.  Three  Volumes. 

8vo. 

Vol.  I.  Oil  Crushing,  Refining  and  Boiling . 

Vol.  II.  Varnish  Materials  and  Oil  Varnish  Making . 

Vol.  III.  Spirit  Varnishes  and  Materials . 

McKnight,  J.  D.,  and  Brown,  A.  W.  Marine  Multitubular  Boilers . 

McMaster,  J.  B.  Bridge  and  Tunnel  Centres.  (Science  Series  No.  20.) 

i6mo, 

McMechen,  F.L.  Tests  for  Ores,  Minerals  and  Metals . i2mo, 

McNeill,  B.  McNeill’s  Code . 8vo, 

McPherson,  J.  A.  Waterworks  Distribution .  8vo, 

Melick,  C.  W.  Dairy  Laboratory  Guide . i2mo, 

Merck,  E.  Chemical  Reagents;  Their  Purity  and  Tests . 8vo, 

Merritt,  Wm.  H.  Field  Testing  for  Gold  and  Silver . i6mo,  leather, 

Meyer,  J.  G.  A.,  and  Pecker,  C.  G.  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Machine 

Design . 4t°> 

Michell,  S.  Mine  Drainage . 8vo, 

Mierzinski,  S.  Waterproofing  of  Fabrics.  Trans,  by  A.  Morris  and  H. 

Robson . 8  vo, 

Miller,  E.  H.  Quantitative  Analysis  for  Mining  Engineers . 8vo, 

Miller,  G.  A.  Determinants.  (Science  Series  No.  105.) . i6mo, 

Milroy,  M.  E.  W.  Home  Lace-making . i2mo, 

Minifie,  W.  Mechanical  Drawing . 8vo, 

Mitchell,  C.  A.,  and  Prideaux,  R.  M.  Fibres  Used  in  Textile  and  Allied 

Industries . - . 8vo, 

Modern  Meteorology . . . i2mo, 

Monckton,  C.  C.  F.  Radiotelegraphy.  (Westminster  Series.) . 8vo, 

Monteverde,  R.  D.  Vest  Pocket  Glossary  of  English-Spanish,  Spanish- 

English  Technical  Terms . 64mo,  leather, 

Moore,  E.  C.  S.  New  Tables  for  the  Complete  Solution  of  Ganguillet  and 

Kutter’s  Formula . 8vo, 

Morecroft,  J.  H.,  and  Hehre,  F.  W.  Short  Course  in  Electrical  Testing. 

8  vo, 

Moreing,  C.  A.,  and  Neal,  T.  New  General  and  Mining  Telegraph  Code,  8vo, 

Morgan,  A.  P.  Wireless  Telegraph  Apparatus  for  Amateurs . i2mo, 

Moses,  A.  J.  The  Characters  of  Crystals. . . 8vo, 

Moses,  A.  J.,  and  Parsons,  C.  L.  Elements  of  Mineralogy . 8vo, 

Moss,  S.  A.  Elements  of  Gas  Engine  Design.  (Science  Series  No.i2i.)i6mo, 

- The  Lay-out  of  Corliss  Valve  Gears.  (Science  Series  No.  119.).  i6mo, 

Mullin,  J.  P.  Modern  Moulding  and  Pattern-making . i2mo, 

Munby,  A.  E.  Chemistry  and  Physics  of  Building  Materials.  (Westmin¬ 
ster  Series.) . . 8vo, 

Murphy,  J.  G.  Practical  Mining.  . . i6mo, 

Murray,  J.  A.  Soils  and  Manures.  (Westminster  Series.) . 8vo, 


3  50 
*4  50 
*3  00 


*3  5° 
'4  00 
k4  50 
•i  50 


o  50 
*1  00 
*6  00 
2  50 


* 


1  25 
T  50 
1  50 


5  00 
10  00 

*2  50 
*1  50 

*1  00 
*4  00 

*3  00 
1  5o 
*2  00 

*1  00 

*5  00 


* 


T  50 
5  00 
T  50 
'2  00 


*2  50 
o  50 
o  50 
2  50 

*2  OO 
I  00 
*2  OO 


Naquet,  A.  Legal  Chemistry . i2mo, 

Nasmith,  J.  The  Student’s  Cotton  Spinning . 8vo, 

- Recent  Cotton  Mill  Construction . i2mo, 


2  00 

3  00 
2  00 


18  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 


Neave,  G.  B,.  and  Heilbron,  I.  M.  Identification  of  Organic  Compounds. 


i2mo, 


*- 


25 

00 

00 


Neilson,  R.  M.  Aeroplane  Patents . gv0> 

Nerz,  F.  Searchlights.  Trans,  by  C.  Rodgers . 8vo, 

Nesbit,  A.  F.  Electricity  and  Magnetism . ( In  Preparation.) 

Neuberger,  H.,  and  Noalhat,  H.  Technology  of  Petroleum.  Trans,  by  J. 

G.  McIntosh . 8vo,  *10  00 

Newall,  J.  W.  Drawing,  Sizing  and  Cutting  Bevel-gears . 8vo, 

Nicol,  G.  Ship  Construction  and  Calculations . 8vo, 

Nipher,  F.  E.  Theory  of  Magnetic  Measurements . i2mo, 

Nisbet,  H.  Grammar  of  Textile  Design . 8vo, 

Nolan,  H.  The  Telescope.  (Science  Series  No.  51.) . i6mo, 

Noll,  A.  How  to  Wire  Buildings . i2mo, 

Nugent,  E.  Treatise  on  Optics . i2mo, 


1 

*4 

1 

*3 

o 

1 

1 


50 

50 

00 

00 

5o 

50 

50 


O’Connor,  H.  The  Gas  Engineer’s  Pocketbook . i2mo,  leather,  3  50 

Petrol  Air  Gas . i2mo,  *0  75 

Ohm,  G.  S.,  and  Lockwood,  T.  D.  Galvanic  Circuit.  Translated  by 

William  Francis.  (Science  Series  No.  102.) . i6mo,  0  50 

Olsen,  J.  C.  Text-book  of  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis . 8vo,  *4  00 

Olsson,  A.  Motor  Control,  in  Turret  Turning  and  Gun  Elevating.  (U.  S. 

Navy  Electrical  Series,  No.  1.) . i2mo,  paper,  *0  50 

Oudin,  M.  A.  Standard  Polyphase  Apparatus  and  Systems . 8vo,  *3  00 


Palaz,  A.  Industrial  Photometry.  Trans,  by  G.  W.  Patterson,  Jr. .  .  8vo,  *4  00 


Pamely,  C.  Colliery  Manager’s  Handbook . 8vo,  *1000 

Parr,  G.  D.  A.  Electrical  Engineering  Measuring  Instruments . 8vo,  *3  50 

Parry,  E.  J.  Chemistry  of  Essential  Oils  and  Artificial  Perfumes _ 8vo,  *5  00 

- Foods  and  Drugs.  Two  Volumes . 8vo, 

Vol.  I.  Chemical  and  Microscopical  Analysis  of  Foods  and  Drugs. 

Vol.  II.  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Act . 

Parry,  E.  J.,  and  Coste,  J.  H.  Chemistry  of  Pigments . 8vo,  *4  50 

Parry,  L.  A.  Risk  and  Dangers  of  Various  Occupations . 8vo,  *300 

Parshall,  H.  F.,  and  Hobart,  H.  M.  Armature  Windings . 4to,  *7  50 

- Electric  Railway  Engineering . 4to,  *10  00 

Parshall,  H.  F.,  and  Parry,  E.  Electrical  Equipment  of  Tramways..  .  .  (In  Press.) 
Parsons,  S.  J.  Malleable  Cast  Iron . . 8vo,  *2  50 

Partington,  J.  R.  Higher  Mathematics  for  Chemical  Students.  .  i2mo,  *2  00 

Passmore,  A.  C.  Technical  Terms  Used  in  Architecture . 8vo,  *3  50 

Patterson,  D.  The  Color  Printing  of  Carpet  Yarns . 8vo,  *3  50 

- Color  Matching  on  Textiles . 8vo,  *3  00 

- The  Science  of  Color  Mixing . 8vo,  *3  00 

Paulding,  C.  P.  Condensation  of  Steam  in  Covered  and  Bare  Pipes.  .8vo,  *2  00 

Transmission  of  Heat  through  Cold-storage  Insulation . i2mo,  *1  00 

Peirce,  B.  System  of  Analytic  Mechanics . 4to,  10  00 

Pendred,  V.  The  Railway  Locomotive.  (Westminster  Series.) . 8vo,  *200 

Perkin,  F.  M.  Practical  Methods  of  Inorganic  Chemistry . i2mo,  *1  00 

Perrigo,  O.  E.  Change  Gear  Devices . 8vo,  1  00 

Perrine,  F.  A.  C.  Conductors  for  Electrical  Distribution . 8vo,  *3  50 

Perry,  J-  Applied  Mechanics . 8vo,  *2  50 

Petit,  G.  White  Lead  and  Zinc  White  Paints . 8vo,  *1  50 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  19 

Petit.  R.  How  to  Build  an  Aeroplane.  Trans,  by  T.  O’B.  Hubbard,  and 


•  J.  H.  Ledeboer . 8v0>  *x  50 

Pettit,  Lieut.  J.  S.  Graphic  Processes.  (Science  Series  No.  76.) . . .  i6mo,  o  50 
Philbrick,  P.  H.  Beams  and  Girders.  (Science  Series  No.  88.) . .  .  i6mo, 

Phillips,  J.  Engineering  Chemistry . 8v0>  '4  5© 

- Gold  Assaying . 8v0>  2  5° 

- Dangerous  Goods . 8v0>  3  5Q 

Phin,  J.  Seven  Follies  of  Science . i2mo,  *1  25 

Pickworth,  C.  N.  The  Indicator  Handbook.  Two  Volumes. .  nmo,  each,  1  50 

- - Logarithms  for  Beginners . i2mo,  boards,  o  50 

- The  Slide  Rule . .  1  00 

Plattner’s  Manual  of  Blow-pipe  Analysis.  Eighth  Edition,  revised.  Trans. 

by  H.  B.  Cornwall . 8v0>  4  00 

Plympton,  G.  W.  The  Aneroid  Barometer.  (Science  Series  No.  35.)  i6mo,  o  50 

- How  to  become  an  Engineer.  (Science  Series  No.  100.) . i6mo,  o  50 

- Van  Nostrand’s  Table  Book.  (Science  Series  No.  104.) . i6mo,  050 

Pochet,  M.  L.  Steam  Injectors.  Translated  from  the  French.  (Science 

Series  No.  29.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Pocket  Logarithms  to  Four  Places.  (Science  Series  No.  65.) . i6mo,  050 

leather,  1  00 

Polleyn,  F.  Dressings  and  Finishings  for  Textile  Fabrics . 8vo,  ’300 

Pope,  F.  L.  Modern  Practice  of  the  Electric  Telegraph . 8vo,  1  50 

Popplewell,  W.  C.  Elementary  Treatise  on  Heat  and  Heat  Engines.  .  i2mo,  *3  00 

- Prevention  of  Smoke . 8\o,  3  5° 

- Strength  of  Materials . 8v0>  1  75 

Potter,  T.  Concrete . 8v0>  3  00 

Practical  Compounding  of  Oils,  Tallow  and  Grease . 8vo,  f3  50 

Practical  Iron  Founding . .  1  50 

Pray,  T.,  Jr.  Twenty  Years  with  the  Indicator . 8vo,  250 

- Steam  Tables  and  Engine  Constant . 8vo,  2  00 

- Calorimeter  Tables . 8vo»  1  00 

Preece,  W.  H.  Electric  Lamps . (^n  Press.) 

Prelini,  C.  Earth  and  Rock  Excavation . 8vo,  *3  00 

- Graphical  Determination  of  Earth  Slopes . 8vo,  *2  00 

- Tunneling.  New  Edition . 8v0>  ^3  00 

- Dredging.  A  Practical  Treatise . '. . 8vo,  *3  00 

Prescott,  A.  B.  Organic  Analysis . 8v0>  5  00 


Prescott,  A.  B.,  and  Johnson,  0.  C.  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.  .  8vo,  *3  5° 

Prescott,  A.  B.,  and  Sullivan,  E.  C.  First  Book  in  Qualitative  Chemistry. 

i2mo,  *1  50 

Pritchard,  O.  G.  The  Manufacture  of  Electric-light  Carbons.  .8vo,  paper,  *0  60 

Pullen,  W.  W.  F.  Application  of  Graphic  Methods  to  the  Design  of 


Structures . .  2  50 

- Injectors:  Theory,  Construction  and  Working . i2mo,  1  50 

Pulsifer,  W.  H.  Notes  for  a  History  of  Lead . 8vo,  400 

Purchase,  W.  R.  Masonry . .  "300 

Putsch,  A.  Gas  and  Coal-dust  Firing . 8vo,  "3  00 

Pynchon,  T.  R.  Introduction  to  Chemical  Physics . 8vo,  3  00 

Rafter  G.  W.  Mechanics  of  Ventilation.  (Science  Series  No.  33.) .  i6mo,  050 
- Potable  Water,  (Science  Series  No.  103.) . i6mo,  o  50 


20  D  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 


Rafter,  G.  W.  Treatment  of  Septic  Sewage.  (Science  Series  No.  118.) 

i6mo, 

Rafter,  G.  W.,  and  Baker,  M.  N.  Sewage  Disposal  in  the  United  States .  4to, 


Raikes,  H.  P.  Sewage  Disposal  Works . 8vo, 

Railway  Shop  Up-to-Date . . 4to 

Ramp,  H.  M.  Foundry  Practice . ( Jn  Press.) 

Randall,  P.  M.  Quartz  Operator’s  Handbook. . i2mo, 

Randau,  P.  Enamels  and  Enamelling . 8vo 

Rankine,  W.  J.  M.  Applied  Mechanics . 8vo, 

- Civil  Engineering . 8v0) 

- Machinery  and  Millwork . 8vo, 

- The  Steam-engine  and  Other  Prime  Movers . 8vo, 

- Useful  Rules  and  Tables .  ovn 


-Rankine,  W.  J.  M.,  and  Bamber,  E.  F.  A  Mechanical  Text-book..  .  .  8vo, 
Raphael,  F.  C.  Localization  of  Faults  in  Electric  Light  and  Power  Mains. 


8  vo, 

Rathbone,  R.  L.  B.  Simple  Jewellery .  8vo, 

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B.  Brydon . 8vo, 

Rausenberger,  F.  The  Theory  of  the  Recoil  of  Guns . 8vo, 

Rautenstrauch,  W.  Notes  on  the  Elements  of  Machine  Design. 8 vo,  boards, 
Rautenstrauch,  W.,  and  Williams,  J.  T.  Machine  Drafting  and  Empirical 
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Part  II.  Empirical  Design . (7n  Preparation.) 

Raymond,  E.  B.  Alternating  Current  Engineering . i2mo, 

Rayner,  H.  Silk  Throwing  and  Waste  Silk  Spinning . 8vo, 

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Recipes  for  Flint  Glass  Making . i2mo 

Redwood,  B.  Petroleum.  (Science  Series  No.  92.) . i6mo, 

Reed’s  Engineers’  Handbook . 8vo 

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oblong  4to,  boards, 

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Reiser,  F.  Hardening  and  Tempering  of  Steel.  Trans,  by  A.  Morris  and 

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Renwick,  W.  G.  Marble  and  Marble  Working . Svoj 

Reynolds,  0.,  and  Idell,  F.  E.  Triple  Expansion  Engines.  (Science 

Series  No.  gg.) . i6mo, 

Rhead,  G.  F.  Simple  Structural  Woodwork . i2mo, 

Rice,  J.  M.,  and  Johnson,  W.  W.  A  New  Method  of  Obtaining  the  Differ¬ 
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Richardson,  J.  The  Modern  Steam  Engine . 8vo’ 

Richardson,  S.  S.  Magnetism  and  Electricity . i2mo, 

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o  50 
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*3  00 
*2  00 

*1  50 
*4  50 
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*1  25 

*2  50 
*2  50 
*3  50 
*4  50 
o  50 
*5  00 
*3  00 

1  50 

2  00 

1  00 
*1  00 

*2  05 

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5  OD 

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O  50 
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Ripper,  W.  Course  of  Instruction  in  Machine  Drawing . folio,  *6  00 

Roberts,  F.  C.  Figure  of  the  Earth.  (Science  Series  No.  79.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Roberts,  J.,  Jr.  Laboratory  Work  in  Electrical  Engineering . 8vo,  *2  00 

Robertson,  L.  S.  Water-tube  Eoilers . 8vo,  3  00 

Robinson,  J.  B.  Architectural  Composition . 8vo,  *2  50 

Robinson,  S.  W.  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Teeth  of  Wheels.  (Science 

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Robson,  J.  H.  Machine  Drawing  and  Sketching . 8vo,  *1  50 

Roebling,  J  A.  Long  and  Short  Span  Railway  Bridges . folio,  25  00 

Rogers,  A.  A  Laboratory  Guide  of  Industrial  Chemistry . i2mo,  *1  50 

Rogers,  A.,  and  Aubert,  A.  B.  Industrial  Chemistry . (In  Press.) 

Rogers,  F.  Magnetism  of  Iron  Vessels.  (Science  Series  No.  30.) .  .  i6mo,  o  50 

Rollins,  W.  Notes  on  X-Light . 8vo,  ‘5  00 

Rose,  J.  The  Pattern-makers’  Assistant . 8vo,  2  50 

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Rose,  T.  K.  The  Precious  Metals.  (Westminster  Series.) . 8vo,  *2  00 

Rosenhain,  W.  Glass  Manufacture.  (Westminster  Series.) . 8vo,  *2  00 

Ross,  W.  A.  Plowpipe  in  Chemistry  and  Metallurgy . i2mo,  *2  00 

Rossiter,  J.  T.  Steam  Engines.  (Westminster  Series.). .  .8vo  (In  Press.) 


Roth.  Physical  Chemistry . 8vo,  *2  00 

Rouillion,  L.  The  Economics  of  Manual  Training . .  8vo,  2  00 

Rowan,  F.  J.  Practical  Physics  of  the  Modern  Steam-boiler . 8vo,  7  50 

Rowan,  F.  J.,  and  Idell,  F.  E.  Boiler  Incrustation  and  Corrosion. 

(Science  Series  No.  27.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Roxburgh,  W.  General  Foundry  Practice . 8vo,  *3  50 

Ruhmer,  E.  Wireless  Telephony.  Trans,  by  J.  Erskine-Murray - 8vo,  *350 

Russell,  A.  Theory  of  Electric  Cables  and  Networks . 8vo,  *3  00 

Sabine,  R.  History  and  Progress  of  the  Electric  Telegraph . i2mo,  1  25 

Saeltzer  A.  Treatise  on  Acoustics . i2mo,  1  00 

Salomons,  D.  Electric  Light  Installations.  i2mo. 

Vol.  I.  The  Management  of  Accumulators .  2  50 

Vol.  II.  Apparatus .  2  25 

Vol.  III.  Applications .  1  5° 

Sanford,  P.  G.  Nitro-explosives . 8vo,  4  00 

Saunders,  C.  H.  Handbook  of  Practical  Mechanics . i6mo,  1  00 

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Saunnier,  C.  Watchmaker’s  Handbook . i2mo,  3  00 

Sayers,  H.  M.  Brakes  for  Tram  Cars . .* . 8vo,  *1  25 

Scheele,  C.  W.  Chemical  Essays . -8vo,  * 2  00 

Schellen,  H.  Magneto-electric  and  Dynamo-electric  Machines . 8vo,  5  00 

Scherer,  R.  Casein.  Trans,  by  C.  Salter . 8vo,  *3  00 

Schidrowitz,  P.  Rubber,  Its  Production  and  Industrial  Uses  .....  .8vo,  *5  00 

Schmall,  C.  N.  First  Course  in  Analytic  Geometry,  Plane  and  Solid. 

i2mo,  half  leather,  *1  75 

Schmall,  C.  N.,  and  Shack,  S.  M.  Elements  of  Plane  Geometry - izmo,  *1  25 

Schmeer,  L.  Flow  of  Water . 8vo,  *3  00 


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Schumann,  F.  A  Manual  of  Heating  and  Ventilation . i2mo,  leather, 

Schwarz,  E.  H.  L.  Causal  Geology . gvo> 

Schweizer,  V.,  Distillation  of  Resins . 8vo, 

Scott,  W.  W.  Qualitative  Analysis.  A  Laboratory  Manual . 8vo, 

Scribner,  J.  M.  Engineers’  and  Mechanics’  Companion  .  ..  i6mo,  leather, 

Searle,  A.  B.  Modern  Brickmaking . 8vo, 

Searle,  G.  M.  “  Sumners’  Method.”  Condensed  and  Improved.  (Science 

Series  No.  124.) . i6mo, 

Seaton,  A.  E.  Manual  of  Marine  Engineering . 8vo, 

Seaton,  A.  E.,  and  Rounthwaite,  H.  M.  Pocket-book  of  Marine  Engineer- 

inS . i6mo,  leather, 

Seeligmann,  T.,  Torrilhon,  G.  L.,  and  Falconnet,  H.  India  Rubber  and 

Gutta  Percha.  Trans,  by  J.  G.  McIntosh . . 8vo, 

Seidell,  A.  Solubilities  of  Inorganic  and  Organic  Substances . 8vo, 

Sellew,  W.  H.  Steel  Rails . ■ . 4to  (In  Press.) 


3 

*1 

1 

* 


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50 
50 
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o  50 
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3  00 

*5  00 
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8vo,  boards, 

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Engineering . 8vo, 

Sewall,  C.  H.  Wireless  Telegraphy . 8vo, 

- Lessons  in  Telegraphy . i2mo, 

Sewell,  T.  Elements  of  Electrical  Engineering . 8vo, 

- The  Con:truction  of  Dynamos . 8vo, 

Sexton,  A.  H.  Fuel  and  Refractory  Materials . i2mo, 

- Chemistry  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering . i2ino, 

- Alloys  (Non-Ferrous) . . 

- The  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel . 8vo, 

Seymour,  A.  Practical  Lithography .  8vo, 

- Modern  Printing  Inks .  gvo 

Shaw,  Henry  S.  H.  Mechanical  Integrators.  (Science  Series  No.  83.) 

i6mo, 

Shaw,  P.  E.  Course  of  Practical  Magnetism  and  Electricity . 8vo, 

Shaw,  S.  History  of  the  Staffordshire  Potteries . 8vo, 

- Chemistry  of  Compounds  Used  in  Porcelain  Manufacture . 8vo, 

Shaw,  W.  N.  Forecasting  Weather . 8vo  (In  Press.) 

Sheldon,  S.,  and  Hausmann,  E.  Electric  Traction  . 

- Direct  Current  Machines . 

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i2mo 

i2mo 

i2mo 


Sherriff,  F.  F.  Oil  Merchants’  Manual . i2mo, 

Shields,  J.  E.  Notes  on  Engineering  Construction . i2mo, 

Shock,  W.  H.  Steam  Boilers . 4to,  half  morocco, 

Shreve,  S.  H.  Strength  of  Bridges  and  Roofs . 8vo, 

Shunk,  W.  F.  The  Field  Engineer . i2mo,  morocco, 

Simmons,  W.  H.,  and  Appleton,  H.  A.  Handbook  of  Soap  Manufacture. 


Simpson,  G.  The  Naval  Constructor . i2mo,  U1U1VVW, 

Sinclair,  A.  Development  of  the  Locomotive  Engine  .  . .  8vo,  half  leather, 


* 


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00 
00 
00 
50 
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3  00 
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1  00 
3  00 
5  00 


2  50 
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Alternating  current  Macmnes . i2mo,  *2  50 

Electric  Traction  and  Transmission  Engineering . 8vo,  *2  50 


*3  50 

1  50 
15  00 

3  50 

2  50 


8vo, 

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00 

*3 

00 

2 

00 

7 

50 

morocco, 

*5 

00 

If  leather, 

5 

00 

D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  23 


Sinclair,  A.  Twentieth  Century  Locomotive . 8vo,  half  leather,  *5  00 

Sindall,  R.  W.  Manufacture  of  Paper.  (Westminster  Series.) . 8vo,  *2  00 

Sloane,  T.  O’C.  Elementary  Electrical  Calculations .  . . i2mo,  *2  00 

Smith,  C.  A.  M.  Handbook  of  Testing,  MATERIALS . *8vo,  *2  50 

Smith,  C.  A.  M.,  and  Warren,  A.  G.  New  Steam  Tables . 8vo, 

Smith,  C.  F.  Practical  Alternating  Currents  and  Testing . 8vo,  *2  50 

- Practical  Testing  of  Dynamos  and  Motors . 8vo,  *2  00 

Smith,  F.  E.  Handbook  of  General  Instruction  for  Mechanics.  .  .  .nmo,  1  50 

Smith,  J.  C.  Manufacture  of  Paint . 8vo,  *3  00 

Smith,  R.  H.  Principles  of  Machine  Work . nmo,  *300 

Elements  of  Machine  Work . i2mo,  *2  00 

Smith,  W.  Chemistry  of  Hat  Manufacturing . nmo,  *300 

Snell,  A.  T.  Electric  Motive  Power . 8vo,  *4  00 

Snow,  W.  G.  Pocketbook  of  Steam  Heating  and  Ventilation.  (In  Press.) 

Snow,  W.  G.,  and  Nolan,  T.  Ventilation  of  Buildings.  (Science  Series 

No.  5.) . i6mo,  0  50 

Soddy,  F.  Radioactivity . 8vo,  *3  00 

Solomon,  M.  Electric  Lamps.  (Westminster  Series.) . 8vo,  *2  00 

Sothern,  J.  W.  The  Marine  Steam  Turbine . 8vo,  *5  00 

Soxhlet,  D.  H.  Dyeing  and  Staining  Marble.  Trans,  by  A.  Morris  and 

H.  Robson . 8vo,  *2  50 

Spang,  H.  W.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Lightning  Protection . i2mo,  1  00 

Spangenburg,  L.  Fatigue  of  Metals.  Translated  by  Is.  H.  Shreve. 

(Science  Series  No.  23.) . i6mo,  0  50 

Specht,  G.  J.,  Hardy,  A.  S.,  McMaster,  J.B  .,  and  Walling.  Topographical 

Surveying.  (Science  Series  No.  72.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Speyers,  C.  L.  Text-book  of  Physical  Chemistry . 8vo,  *2  25 

Stahl,  A.  W.  Transmission  of  Power.  (Science  Series  No.  28.) .  .  *  i6mo, 

Stahl,  A.  W.,  and  Woods,  A.  T.  Elementary  Mechanism . i2mo,  *2  00 

Staley,  C.,  and  Pierson,  G.  S.  The  Separate  System  of  Sewerage.  .  .  .  8vo,  *3  00 

Standage,  H.  C.  Leatherworkers’  Manual . 8vo,  *3  50 

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Stansbie,  J.  H.  Iron  and  Steel.  (Westminster  Series.) . 8vo,  *2  00 

Steinman,  D.  B.  Suspension  Bridges  and  Cantilevers.  (Science  Series 

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Stevens,  H.  P.  Paper  Mill  Chemist . . . i6mo,  *2  50 

Stevenson,  J.  L.  Blast-Furnace  Calculations . nmo,  leather,  *2  00 

Stewart,  A.  Modern  Polyphase  Machinery . nmo,  *2  00 

Stewart,  G.  Modern  Steam  Traps . nmo,  *1  25 

Stiles,  A.  Tables  for  Field  Engineers . nmo,  1  00 

Stillman,  P.  Steam-engine  Indicator . 12  mo,  1  00 

Stodola,  A.  Steam  Turbines.  Trans,  by  L.  C.  Loewenstein . 8vo,  *5  00 

Stone,  H.  The  Timbers  of  Commerce . 8vo,  3  50 

Stone,  Gen.  R.  New  Roads  and  Road  Laws . nmo,  1  00 

Stapes,  M.  Ancient  Plants . 8vo,  *2  00 

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Sudborough,  J.  J.,  and  James,  T.  C.  Practical  Organic  Chemistry.  .  nmo,  *2  00 

Suffling,  E.  R.  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Glass  Painting . 8vo,  *3  50 

Swan,  K.  Patents,  Designs  and  Trade  Marks.  (Westminster  Series.).8vo,  *2  00 

Sweet,  S.  H.  Special  Report  on  Coal . 8vo,  3  00 


24  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 


Swinburne,  J.,  Wordingham,  C.  H.,  and  Martin,  T.  C.  Eletcric  Currents. 


(Science  Series  No.  109.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Swoope,  C.  W.  Practical  Lessons  in  Electricity . i2mo,  *2  00 

« 

Tailfer,  L.  Bleaching  Linen  and  Cotton  Yarn  and  Fabrics . 8vo,  *5  00 

Tate,  J.  S.  Surcharged  and  Different  Forms  of  Retaining-walls.  (Science 

Series  No.  7.) . ; . i6mo, 

Templeton,  W.  Practical  Mechanic’s  Workshop  Companion. 


i2mo,  morocco,  2  00 

Terry,  H.  L.  India  Rubber  and  its  Manufacture.  (Westminster  Series.) 


8vo,  *2  00 

Thayer,  H.  R.  Design  of  Structures . (In  Press.) 

Thiess,  J.  B.  and  Joy,  G.  A.  Toll  Telephone  Practice . (In  Press.) 

Thom,  C.,  and  Jones,  W.  H.  Telegraphic  Connections . oblong  i2mo,  1  50 

Thomas,  C.  W.  Paper-makers’  Handbook . (In  Press.) 

Thompson,  A.  B.  Oil  Fields  of  Russia . 4to,  *7  50 

- Petroleum  Mining  and  Oil  Field  Development . 8vo,  *5  00 

Thompson,  E.  P.  How  to  Make  Inventions . 8vo,  o  50 

Thompson,  S.  P.  Dynamo  Electric  Machines.  (Science  Series  No.  75.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Thompson,  W.  P.  Handbook  of  Patent  Law  of  All  Countries . i6mo,  1  50 

Thornley,  T.  Cotton  Combing  Machines . 8vo,  *3  00 

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Second  Year .  *2  50 

Third  Year .  *2  50 

Thurso,  J.  W.  Modern  Turbine  Practice . 8vo,  *4  00 

Tidy,  C.  Meymott.  Treatment  of  Sewage.  (Science  Series  No.  94.). 

i6mo,  o  50 

Tinney,  W.  H.  Gold-mining  Machinery . 8vo,  *3  00 

Titherley,  A.  W.  Laboratory  Course  of  Organic  Chemistry . 8vo,  *2  00 

Toch,  M.  Chemistry  and  Technology  of  Mixed  Paints . 8vo,  *3  00 

- Materials  for  Permanent  Painting . i2mo,  *2  00 

Todd,  J.,  and  Whall,  W.  B.  Practical  Seamanship . 8vo,  *7  50 

Tonge,  J.  Coal.  (Westminster  Series.) . 8vo,  *2  00 

Townsend,  F.  Alternating  Current  Engineering . . 8vo,  boards  *0  75 

Townsend,  J.  Ionization  of  Gases  by  Collision . 8vo,  *1  25 

Transactions  of  the  American  Institute  of  Chemical  Engineers.  8vo. 

Vol.  I.  1908 .  *6  00 

Vol.  II.  1909 .  *6  00 

Vol.  III.  1910 .  6  00 

Traverse  Tables.  (Science  Series  No.  115.) . i6mo,  o  50 

morocco,  1  00 


Trinks,  W.,  and  Housum,  C.  Shaft  Governors.  (Science  Series  No.  122.) 


i6mo,  o  50 

Trowbridge,  W.  P.  Turbine  Wheels.  (Science  Series  No.  44.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Tucker,  J.  H.  A  Manual  of  Sugar  Analysis . 8vo,  3  50 

Tumlirz,  0.  Potential.  Trans,  by  D.  Robertson . i2mo,  1  25 

Tunner,  P.  A.  Treatise  on  Roll-turning.  Trans,  by  J.  B.  Pearse. 

8vo,  text  and  folio  atlas,  10  00 

Turbayne,  A.  A.  Alphabets  and  Numerals . 4to,  2  00 


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Turnbull,  Jr.,  J.,  and  Robinson,  S.  W.  A  Treatise  on  the  Compound 

Steam-engine,  (Science  Series  No.  8.) . i6mo, 

Turrill,  S.  M.  Elementary  Course  in  Perspective . i2mo,  *i  25 

Underhill,  C.  R.  Solenoids,  Electromagnets  and  Electromagnetic  Wind¬ 
ings . I2mo>  *2  00 

Urquhart,  J.  W.  Electric  Light  Fitting . i2mo,  2  00 

- Electro-plating . .  2  00 

- Electrotyping . .  2  00 

- Electric  Ship  Lighting . ..121110,  3  00 

Universal  Telegraph  Cipher  Code . i2mo,  1  00 

Vacher,  F.  Food  Inspector’s  Handbook . i2mo,  *2  50 

Van  Nostrand’s  Chemical  Annual.  Second  issue  1909 . i2mo,  *250 

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Van  Wagenen,  T.  F.  Manual  of  Hydraulic  Mining. . i6mo,  1  00 


Villon,  A.  M.  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Leather  Industry.  Trans,  by  F. 

T.  Addyman . 8v0>  *10  00 

Vincent,  C.  Ammonia  and  its  Compounds.  Trans,  by  M.  J.  Salter.  .8vo,  *2  00 

Volk,  C.  Haulage  and  Winding  Appliances . 8vo,  *400 

Von  Georgievics,  G.  Chemical  Technology  of  Textile  Fibres.  Trans,  by 

C.  Salter . 8v0>  *4  5o 

- - Chemistry  of  Dyestuffs.  Trans,  by  C.  Salter . 8vo,  *4  50 

Vose,  G.  L.  Graphic  Method  for  Solving  Certain  Questions  in  Arithmetic 

and  Algebra.  (Science  Series  No.  16.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Wabner,  R.  Ventilation  in  Mines.  Trans,  by  C.  Salter . 8vo,  *4  50 

Wade,  E.  J.  Secondary  Batteries . 8v0>  *4  00 

Wadsworth,  C.  Primary  Battery  Ignition . i2mo  {In  Press.) 

Wagner,  E.  Preserving  Fruits,  Vegetables,  and  Meat . i2mo,  *2  50 

Walker,  F.  Aerial  Navigation . 8v0>  2  00 

- Dynamo  Building.  (Science  Series  No.  98.) . i6mo,  o  50 

- Electric  Lighting  for  Marine  Engineers . 8vo,  2  00 

Walker,  S.  F.  Steam  Boilers,  Engines  and  Turbines. . . 8vo,  3  00 

- Refrigeration,  Heating  and  Ventilation  on  Shipboard . <  .i2mo,  *2  00 

- Electricity  in  Mining . 8v0>  *3  5° 

Walker,  W.  H.  Screw  Propulsion . 8vo>  o  75 

Wallis-Tayler,  A.  J.  Bearings  and  Lubrication . 8vo,  *1  50 

- Modern  Cycles . 8v0>  4  00 

- Motor  Cars . 8v0>  1  80 

Wallis-Tayler,  A.  J.  Motor  Vehicles  for  Business  Purposes . 8vo,  350 

- Pocket  Book  of  Refrigeration  and  Ice  Making . i2mo,  1  50 

- Refrigeration,  Cold  Storage  and  Ice-Making . • . 8vo, 

- Sugar  Machinery . .  *2  00 

Wanklyn,  J.  A.  Water  Analysis . i2mo,  2  00 

Wansbrough,  W.  D.  The  A  B  C  of  the  Differential  Calculus . i2mo,  *1  50 

- Slide  Valves . i2mo,  *2  00 

Ward,  J.  H.  Steam  for  the  Million . 8vo,  1  00 

Waring,  Jr.,  G.  E.  Sanitary  Conditions.  (Science  Series  No.  31.). .  i6mo,  o  50 

- Sewerage  and  Land  Drainage .  *6  00 


26  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Waring,  Jr.,  G.  E.  Modern  Methods  of  Sewage  Disposal . i2mo,  2  00 

— —  How  to  Drain  a  House . i2mo,  1  25 

Warren,  F.  D.  Handbook  on  Reinforced  Concrete . i2mo,  *2  50 

Watkins,  A.  Photography.  (Westminster  Series.) . 8vo,  *200 

Watson,  E.  P.  Small  Engines  and  Boilers . i2mo,  1  25 

Watt,  A.  Electro-plating  and  Electro-refining  of  Metals . 8vo,  *4  50 

— —  Electro-metallurgy . I2mo,  1  00 

• - The  Art  of  Soap-making . , . gvo,  3  G0 

- Leather  Manufacture . . gv0>  00 

- - Paper-Making . 8vo’  3  00 

Weale,  J.  Dictionary  of  Terms  Used  in  Architecture . i2mo,  2  50 

Weale’s  Scientific  and  Technical  Series.  (Complete  list  sent  on  applica¬ 
tion.) 

Weather  and  Weather  Instruments . i2mo,  1  00 

paper,  o  50 

Webb,  H.  L.  Guide  to  the  Testing  of  Insulated  Wires  and  Cables. .  i2mo,  1  00 

Webber,  W.  H.  Y.  Town  Gas.  (Westminster  Series.) . 8vo,  *2  00 

Weisbach,  J.  A  Manual  of  Theoretical  Mechanics . . 8vo,  *6  00 

sheep,  *7  50 

Weisbach,  J.,  and  Herrmann,  U  Mechanics  of  Air  Machinery . 8vo,  *3  75 

Weston,  E.  B.  Loss  of  Head  Due  to  Friction  of  Water  in  Pipes  . . .  i2mo,  *1  50 

Weymouth,  F.  M.  Drum  Armatures  and  Commutators . 8vo,  *3  00 

Wheatley,  O.  Ornamental  Cement  Work . (In  Press.) 

Wheeler,  J.  B.  Art  of  War . i2mo,  1  75 

- Field  Fortifications . . i2mo,  1  75 

Whipple,  S.  An  Elementary  and  Practical  Treatise  on  Bridge  Building. 

8vo,  3  00 

Whithard,  P.  Illuminating  and  Missal  Painting . i2mo,  1  50 

Wilcox,  R.  M.  Cantilever  Bridges.  (Science  Series  No.  25.) . i6mo,  050 

Wilkinson,  H.  D.  Submarine  Cable  Laying  and  Repairing . 8vo,  *6  00 

Williams,  A.  D.,  Jr.,  and  Hutchinson,  R.  W.  The  Steam  Turbine . (In  Press.) 

Williamson,  R.  S.  On  the  Use  of  the  Barometer . 4to,  15  00 

- Practical  Tables  in  Meteorology  and  Hypsometery . 4to,  2  50 

Willson,  F.  N.  Theoretical  and  Practical  Graphics . 4to,  00 

Wimperis,  H,  E.  Internal  Combustion  Engine . 8vo,  00 

Wincheil,  N.  H.,  and  A.  N.  Elements  of  Optical  Mineralogy . 8vo,  *3  50 

Winkler,  C.,  and  Lunge,  G.  Handbook  of  Technical  Gas-Analysis . .  .8vo,  4  00 

Winslow,  A.  Stadia  Surveying.  (Science  Series  No.  77.) . i6mo,  o  50 

Wisser,  Lieut.  J.  P.  Explosive  Materials.  (Science  Series  No.  70.). 

i6mo,  o  50 

Wisser,  Lieut.  J.  P.  Modern  Gun  Cotton.  (Science  Series  No.  89.)i6mo,  o  50 

Wood,  De  V.  Luminiferous  Aether.  (Science  Series  No.  85.) _ i6mo,  050 

Woodbury,  D.  V.  Elements  of  Stability  in  the  Well-proportioned  Arch. 

8vo,  half  morocco,  4  00 

Worden,  E.  C.  The  Nitrocellulose  Industry.  Two  Volumes . \8vo,  *10  00 

Wright,  A.  C.  Analysis  of  Oils  and  Allied  Substances . 8vo,  *3  50 

Simple  Method  for  Testing  Painters’  Materials . 8vo,  *2  50 

Wright,  H.  E.  Handy  Book  for  Brewers . .  .  .8vo,  *5  00 

Wright,  F.  W.  Design  of  a  Condensing  Plant . i2mo,  *1  50 

Wright,  T.  W.  Elements  of  Mechanics . 8vo,  *2  50 

Wright,  T.  W.,  and  Hayford,  J.  F.  Adjustment  of  Observations . 8vo,  *3  00 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY’S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  27 
> 

Young,  J.  E.  Electrical  Testing  for  Telegraph  Engineers . 8vo,  *4  00 

Zahner,  R.  Transmission  of  Power.  (Science  Series  No.  40.). . . .  i6mo, 

Zeidler,  J.,  and  Lustgarten,  J.  Electric  Arc  Lamps . 8vo,  *200 

Zeuner,  A.  Technical  Thermodynamics.  Trans,  by  J.  F.  Klein.  Two 

Volumes . 8vo,  *8  00 

Zimmer,  G.  F.  Mechanical  Handling  of  Material . 4to,  *10  00 

Zipser,  J.  Textile  Raw  Materials.  Trans,  by  C.  Salter . 8vo,  *5  00 

Zur  Nedden,  F.  Engineering  Workshop  Machines  and  Processes.  Trans. 

by  J.  A.  Davenport . . 8vo  *2  00 


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/ 


